CELE Transportation & Highway Engineering — Ports, Harbors, Airports and RailroadsCheat Sheet
Ports, Harbors, Airports and Railroads cheat sheet — the reference card you wish you had on exam day. Condensed from the full study notes, this is the high-yield core of Ports, Harbors, Airports and Railroads for CELE Transportation & Highway Engineering. Download, print, revise.
Exam context
On the CELE 2026, the Transportation & Highway Engineering subtest carries a "Core" weight in Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) — Board of Civil Engineering's pattern. Ports, Harbors, Airports and Railroads lands at position 4th out of 4 in the standard review order. Target score is 70% weighted average, no sub-test below 50%, and roughly a meaningful share of items come from Transportation & Highway Engineering on a typical CELE paper.
Ports, Harbors, Airports and Railroads - Cheat Sheet
Your last-minute rapid-fire reference covering railroad superelevation, airport runway design, and harbor fundamentals. All formulas, key definitions, and exam-critical facts in one condensed resource.
Sections
Formulas
Formula
e = (G × V²) / (127 × R)
Meaning
e = equilibrium cant (m); G = gauge (m); V = train speed (km/h); R = curve radius (m)
Watch Out
Constant 127 is FIXED (same as road superelevation formula). Do NOT confuse gauge (1.435 m standard) with other rail spacing. Speed must be in km/h, radius in meters.
When To Use
Calculate superelevation (cant) on railway curves to balance centrifugal force.
Formula
Maximum cant = e_max (typically 100–150 mm or 0.1–0.15 m)
Meaning
e_max = maximum allowable superelevation set by railway standards and comfort limits
Watch Out
Different railway systems use different e_max values. Philippine railways often use 100–120 mm. Verify from local standards (RA 544 context).
When To Use
Check if calculated cant exceeds maximum; if yes, reduce design speed or increase radius.
Formula
Transition curve length: L_t = (e × G) / gradient_rate, or empirical L_t ≈ 0.5 to 1.0 m/s × V
Meaning
L_t = transition curve length (m); e = cant (m); gradient_rate = rate of cant change per unit length
Watch Out
Abrupt cant change causes 'snapping' and passenger discomfort. Transition curves are ESSENTIAL on sharp curves.
When To Use
Design smooth transition from zero cant (tangent) to full cant (curve) to avoid sudden jerk.
Common Values
Value
1.435 m
Symbol
G
Quantity
Standard gauge
Value
0.10–0.15 m (100–150 mm)
Symbol
e_max
Quantity
Maximum equilibrium cant (typical)
Value
1.5–3.0%
Symbol
m
Quantity
Ruling gradient (typical)
Value
300–500 m
Symbol
R_min
Quantity
Minimum curve radius (freight)
Value
100–160 km/h
Symbol
V
Quantity
Design speed for mainline passenger
Section Title
Railroad Engineering
Important Facts
- Standard railway gauge (1.435 m) used worldwide except Russia/CIS (1.520 m), Spain/Portugal (1.668 m), Japan (1.067 m).
- Cant formula constant 127 applies to km/h and m units (same as road superelevation).
- Equilibrium cant occurs when centrifugal force is exactly balanced; faster trains need more cant.
- Passenger comfort limit ≈ 0.15 m/s² unbalanced lateral acceleration; freight can tolerate higher.
- Ruling gradient limits train load; steeper sections require lighter consist or helper engines.
- Transition curves prevent sudden acceleration jerk; length typically 0.5 to 1.0 m/s × speed in SI units.
- Railway curves sharper than ~600 m radius require check rails to prevent derailment.
- Vertical curves (summit/sag) on railways similar to road design but steeper gradients allowed (±2–3%).
Key Definitions
Term
Gauge
Example
Philippine narrow-gauge lines use 1.0 m or 0.75 m; standard gauge = 1.435 m.
Definition
Distance between inside faces of two rails; standard international gauge = 1.435 m (4 ft 8.5 in).
Term
Superelevation (Cant)
Example
A 200 mm cant means the outer rail is 200 mm higher than the inner rail.
Definition
Tilting of the outer rail above the inner rail on a curve to counteract centrifugal force and reduce lateral acceleration.
Term
Ruling Gradient
Example
2% ruling gradient typical for freight lines; steeper gradients require helper engines or reduced load.
Definition
The maximum sustainable gradient on a railway line; determines the heaviest load a train can haul on any section.
Term
Check Rails (Guard Rails)
Example
Used on tight curves (R < 600 m) to prevent lateral wheel slip during high-speed or loaded passage.
Definition
Additional short rails placed inside the sharp curves to guide wheel flanges and prevent derailment.
Term
Transition Curve
Example
Prevents jolt; commonly 50–100 m long for passenger lines.
Definition
Gradual spiral curve connecting a tangent (zero curvature) to a circular arc (constant radius); cant increases gradually.
Diagrams To Know
- Cross-section of banked curve showing inner and outer rails, cant angle, and centrifugal force vector.
- Plan view of transition curve connecting tangent to circular arc; cant spiral diagram.
- Vertical alignment showing ruling gradient, summit/sag curves, and minimum clearance envelopes.
- Wheel and flange geometry relative to rails and check rails on sharp curves.
Reactions Or Equations
Note
At equilibrium cant, this = 0. When e is insufficient, outer rail carries extra load (flange wear).
Equation
Unbalanced lateral acceleration = (V²/R) - (g × e/G)
Conditions
On a banked curve; V in m/s, R in m, e and G in m, g = 9.81 m/s²
Formulas
Formula
L_actual = L_basic × (1 + elevation%) × (1 + temperature%) × (1 + gradient%)
Meaning
L_actual = required runway length (m); L_basic = sea-level, ISA, 0% gradient reference length; correction factors applied sequentially
Watch Out
Corrections are MULTIPLICATIVE, not additive. Temperature correction is above ISA standard (15°C – 6.5°C/1000 m), NOT above 15°C flat. Order matters: apply elevation first.
When To Use
Calculate real-world runway length needed based on airport elevation, temperature, and gradient.
Formula
Elevation correction = 7% per 300 m (or 0.023% per 1 m of elevation)
Meaning
Length increase due to thinner air reducing engine/lift performance.
Watch Out
This is an ICAO standard rule. Some contexts use 8% per 300 m for more conservative design. Check local code.
When To Use
For every 300 m of elevation, add 7% to basic runway length.
Formula
Temperature correction = 1% per 1°C above ISA standard for that elevation
Meaning
ISA standard = 15°C – (6.5°C/1000 m × elevation in km); add 1% for each °C above this.
Watch Out
CRITICAL: Do NOT use flat 15°C as baseline. ISA decreases with elevation: 15 – 6.5×(elev/1000)°C. A 1000 m high airport has ISA = 8.5°C.
When To Use
Account for hot-day performance loss; applies only if airport reference temperature exceeds ISA.
Formula
Gradient correction ≈ 1% per 0.1% (or 1% per 0.1% slope gradient)
Meaning
Length increase if runway has significant upslope (average gradient from threshold to far end).
Watch Out
Gradient correction is usually small and often neglected for slopes < 0.5%. Typical corrections: 0–2%.
When To Use
If average runway gradient > 0.5%, apply correction; for landing direction (uphill favors aircraft).
Formula
Wind coverage ≥ 95% (ICAO standard for runway orientation adequacy)
Meaning
The runway orientation should accommodate crosswind for ≥ 95% of the time based on local wind rose.
Watch Out
Crosswind limit for jet transport ≈ 15 m/s (54 km/h); most aircraft limit ≈ 10 m/s. Orientation by wind rose, not runway gradient convenience.
When To Use
Determine optimal runway heading from wind rose data (usually 16-point or 36-point compass rose).
Common Values
Value
7% per 300 m (or 0.023% per meter)
Symbol
ΔL_elev
Quantity
Elevation correction
Value
1% per 1°C above ISA
Symbol
ΔL_temp
Quantity
Temperature correction
Value
1% per 0.1% slope
Symbol
ΔL_grade
Quantity
Gradient correction
Value
≥ 95%
Symbol
Coverage%
Quantity
Wind coverage requirement
Value
10–12 m/s (36–43 km/h)
Symbol
V_xwind
Quantity
Crosswind limit (narrow-body jet)
Value
300 m
Symbol
L_strip
Quantity
Runway strip length (from threshold)
Value
150 m (75 m each side)
Symbol
W_strip
Quantity
Runway strip width (aside)
Value
45 m
Symbol
W_taxiway
Quantity
Taxiway width (mainline)
Section Title
Airport Runway Design
Important Facts
- ICAO Annex 14 and Philippines Civil Aviation Authority (CAAP) specify runway design standards.
- Elevation correction: +7% per 300 m is standard; some codes use +8% for conservative design.
- Temperature correction: +1% per °C ABOVE ISA standard (not above flat 15°C); ISA = 15 – 6.5×(elev/1000)°C.
- Gradient correction minimal for slopes < 0.5%; typically ignored unless runway is very steep.
- Wind rose orientation governs runway heading; ≥ 95% wind coverage required for adequate 1-runway system.
- Crosswind limit ≈ 10 m/s (36 km/h) for typical jets; some larger aircraft ≤ 15 m/s.
- Runway length corrected successively (multiply factors); order: elevation → temperature → gradient.
- Taxiway: 45 m width typical for mainline airport; turning radius ≥ 60 m for 90° turn.
- Runway-to-runway separation for parallel runways ≥ 760 m (independent parallel ops) or ≥ 460 m (dependent).
- Apron (ramp): 1.5× of runway width typical; strength designed for aircraft wheel loads (Boeing gear pressures ≈ 1.0–1.5 MPa).
Key Definitions
Term
Basic Runway Length (L_basic)
Example
B737: ≈ 2400 m; A380: ≈ 2600–3000 m basic length (from aircraft data).
Definition
Reference takeoff/landing distance at sea level, ISA (15°C), 0% gradient, calm wind, maximum aircraft weight.
Term
Wind Rose
Example
If prevailing winds blow N–S, orient runway N–S to align with wind (headwind for takeoff/landing).
Definition
Radar-style diagram showing frequency and direction of winds at an airport; used to orient runways for maximum wind coverage.
Term
Crosswind Limit
Example
A 15 km/h crosswind on a runway oriented 10° off true wind direction reduces effective headwind slightly.
Definition
Maximum perpendicular wind component an aircraft can safely tolerate during takeoff/landing; typically 10–15 m/s.
Term
ISA (International Standard Atmosphere)
Example
At 1500 m elevation, ISA = 15 – (6.5 × 1.5) = 5.25°C.
Definition
Reference atmosphere: 15°C at sea level, decreasing 6.5°C per 1000 m elevation; used to standardize aircraft performance.
Term
Airport Reference Temperature (ART)
Example
A hot airport (e.g., Manila) may have ART ≈ 32–35°C, requiring significant runway lengthening.
Definition
Mean of the highest daily maximum temperatures in the warmest month over 30 years; used for temperature runway correction.
Term
Runway Strip (Safety Area)
Example
No obstacles, utility poles, or buildings within the strip; must be drained and relatively flat.
Definition
Clear zone extending 300 m (typical) from runway end and 150 m width aside; protects against overrun and undershoot.
Term
Clear Zone
Example
Extends 300 m from runway threshold, widens at 1:20 ratio (or steeper per code).
Definition
Area at runway approach where no obstacles may exist; ensures aircraft can climb safely on takeoff or descend for landing.
Diagrams To Know
- Wind rose (16-point or 36-point compass) with frequency vectors; optimal runway orientation selection.
- Runway profile showing elevation change, gradient %, and clearance envelopes from threshold to far end.
- Runway strip and clear zone cross-section and plan; safety area dimensions.
- Aircraft approach slope (3° glide slope) with obstacle clearance diagram.
- Taxiway centerline radius and shoulder fillet geometry for different aircraft categories.
Formulas
Formula
Channel depth = design vessel draft + under-keel clearance
Meaning
Depth measured below lowest astronomical tide (LAT) or chart datum; draft = deepest point of loaded hull; clearance = safety margin (typically 1.0–1.5 m).
Watch Out
Depth is referenced to TIDAL DATUM, not mean water level. LAT (Lowest Astronomical Tide) is the standard reference in most ports. Seasonal/weather variations matter: storm surge, dredge maintenance depths.
When To Use
Determine minimum dredging depth for a harbor to accommodate target vessel class safely.
Formula
Mooring line tension ≈ (wind force + current force + wave force) / (number of lines × line efficiency)
Meaning
Wind load ≈ 0.5 × ρ_air × V² × C_d × projected area; current ≈ similar; wave force dynamic
Watch Out
Wind is highly directional; design for worst-case 100-year wind or port-specific design storm. Current vectors vary with tidal phase. Multiple loading cases required.
When To Use
Size mooring hardware (bollards, bits, cleats) for safe vessel hold during berthing.
Formula
Breakwater height ≥ design wave height + freeboard allowance + setup/runup
Meaning
Design wave = significant wave height (H_s) or H_1/10; freeboard ≈ 0.5–1.5 m above high water; setup/runup depend on slope and wave steepness.
Watch Out
Wave setup and runup ADD to still water level and can exceed design wave height. Steep slopes increase runup. Sheltered vs. open-water design very different.
When To Use
Design breakwater crest elevation to prevent overtopping during design storm (e.g., 50-year return period).
Formula
Turning basin radius ≥ 1.5 × L_ship (minimum) or 2.0 × L_ship (preferred)
Meaning
L_ship = length overall; ratio ensures space for safe 180° turn without excessive rudder angle or dredge damage.
Watch Out
Narrow channels and strong currents reduce effective turning radius. Tugs may be required; basin depth = channel depth. Circular basin preferred over oval.
When To Use
Size circular or oval turning basin at port approaches to allow inbound/outbound vessel rotation.
Formula
Berth length ≥ L_ship + 2 × safety margin (typically 10–15 m per side)
Meaning
Length of wharf/quay face required for vessel mooring with allowance for surge and drift.
Watch Out
Current, wind, and wave surge cause vessel movement; inadequate margin results in collision. Breasting dolphins or fender systems reduce required length.
When To Use
Plan wharf layout and determine number of berths for expected fleet.
Common Values
Value
1.0–1.5 m (large vessels); 0.5–1.0 m (restricted channels)
Symbol
UKC
Quantity
Under-keel clearance
Value
1.5 × L_ship
Symbol
R_turn
Quantity
Turning basin radius (minimum)
Value
2.0 × L_ship
Symbol
R_turn_pref
Quantity
Turning basin radius (preferred)
Value
294 m length × 32 m beam × 15 m draft
Symbol
L × B × d
Quantity
Panamax design vessel
Value
400+ m length × 50+ m beam × 15–16 m draft
Symbol
L × B × d
Quantity
Post-Panamax design vessel
Value
Varies by location (tropical ≈ 2–4 m; temperate ≈ 6–10 m)
Symbol
H_s
Quantity
Breakwater design wave height (50-year return)
Value
50 kPa (general cargo); 100+ kPa (container gantry cranes)
Symbol
q
Quantity
Wharf deck loading
Value
40–60 m (container); 20–30 m (breakbulk)
Symbol
W_apron
Quantity
Apron working width
Section Title
Ports and Harbors
Important Facts
- Harbor depth reference: Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) or Lowest Low Water (LLW); depths shown on nautical charts.
- Design vessel draft + under-keel clearance = minimum dredged depth; typical clearance 1.0–1.5 m for large vessels, 0.5–1.0 m for restricted channels.
- Breakwater design: consider 50-year or 100-year return storm; wave height from hindcast/buoy data or fetch-limited formulas (SMB, Pierson–Moskowitz).
- Mooring forces: wind (dominant in many climates), current (tidal + estuarine flow), wave drift (low-frequency surge), and tide-induced surge all contribute.
- Turning basin: preferred radius = 2.0 × L_ship; minimum = 1.5 × L_ship. Depth = channel depth (no shoaling).
- Wharf deck loading: 50 kPa typical for general cargo; 100+ kPa for container cranes; design per ACI 318 or local code.
- Apron/quay working width: 40–60 m typical for container operations; less for breakbulk.
- Mooring lines: 4–8 lines typical for general cargo ship; pre-planned arrangement reduces turnaround time.
- Dredging: maintenance dredging required every 5–10 years depending on silt load; capital dredging for new channel/expansion.
- Breakwater armor: Dn = D50 stone size; design uses Hudson formula or Van der Meer (wave overtopping criteria).
Key Definitions
Term
Harbor/Port
Example
Manila Harbor (natural) vs. Port of Batangas (partly dredged and protected).
Definition
Sheltered water body (natural or artificial via breakwater) where ships moor, load/unload cargo, and refuel; includes berths, channels, and basins.
Term
Breakwater
Example
Rubble-mound: large boulders/armor units stacked on core; caisson: hollow concrete box filled with grout or sand.
Definition
Offshore structure (rubble-mound, caisson, pile, or composite) that reduces wave energy inside harbor, allowing safe vessel operations.
Term
Wharf/Quay
Example
Typical container terminal wharf: 400–600 m long, 15–20 m deep, reinforced concrete deck for cranes.
Definition
Waterfront structure (sheet pile, gravity, or caisson wall) where vessels tie up, load/unload; supports dock equipment and cargo transfer.
Term
Berth
Example
A 400 m wharf might have 1 large berth for Panamax containers or 2–3 smaller berths.
Definition
Individual mooring space at wharf for one vessel; includes mooring points and fender protection.
Term
Turning Basin
Example
Radius typically 1.5–2.0× ship length; 150 m radius for a 75 m general cargo ship.
Definition
Circular or oval area in a harbor where vessels can rotate 180° without excessive rudder angle or grounding.
Term
Channel (Dredged)
Example
300 m wide, 12 m deep channel for Panamax vessels (9.5 m draft + 2.5 m clearance).
Definition
Artificial waterway connecting harbor to open sea; dredged to design depth and width for safe navigation.
Term
Under-Keel Clearance (UKC)
Example
A 10 m draft ship in a 12 m channel has 2 m UKC.
Definition
Vertical safety margin between vessel draft and channel bottom; typical 1.0–1.5 m for collision/squat protection.
Term
Design Vessel
Example
Panamax (294 m × 32 m, 15 m draft) for major container port; general cargo ship (150 m × 20 m, 8 m draft) for regional port.
Definition
Largest or most restrictive ship class the port is intended to accommodate; defines channel/basin dimensions.
Term
Fender
Example
Cylindrical fender ø 1.5 m absorbs kinetic energy up to ~500 kJ (typical small vessel impact).
Definition
Energy-absorbing cushion (rubber, foam, or pneumatic) attached to wharf face to protect vessel and structure during berthing.
Diagrams To Know
- Harbor layout: breakwater, channels, turning basin, wharves, aprons (top-down plan view).
- Cross-section of wharf showing sheet-pile wall, toe foundation, backfill, deck reinforcement, and fender attachment.
- Breakwater cross-section: core, filter layers, armor stone sizing, and crest elevation.
- Vessel mooring arrangement: typical 4–8 line configuration, angles, and tension vectors.
- Typical port profile: fairway depth, channel depth, anchorage zone, outer breakwater, inner harbor calm water.
Reactions Or Equations
Note
Often simplified as F_wind ≈ 500–1000 N per m³ of wind speed at 50 km/h; scales with V².
Equation
Wind force (drag) = 0.5 × ρ_air × V_wind² × C_d × A_projected
Conditions
ρ_air ≈ 1.225 kg/m³; C_d ≈ 1.0–1.5 for ship superstructure; A_projected ≈ height × length above waterline
Note
Dynamic effect; must be accounted in UKC calculation. Under-keel clearance should include squat margin.
Equation
Squat (additional draft increase) ≈ 0.01 to 0.05 × draft, depending on speed through channel
Conditions
Shallow-draft channels and high-speed transit; ship speed > Froude # 0.25
Section Title
Integrated Airport and Port Design (Comparison Context)
Important Facts
- Both airports and ports must account for environmental extremes: wind, tide, current, wave, temperature, and precipitation.
- Philippine context: tropical typhoons and monsoon winds dominate design; seasonal wind pattern is critical for both runway orientation and port shelter.
- RA 544 encourages private development; engineering standards (ICAO, PIANC, AISC, ACI, NSCP) remain non-negotiable regardless of operator.
- Runway and channel design both involve correction factors: elevation, temperature, gradient for runways; tide, current, silt for channels.
- Safety margins essential: UKC for shipping, clear zones for aircraft, freeboard for breakwaters—all prevent catastrophic failure.
Key Definitions
Term
ICAO Annex 14
Example
Philippines adopts ICAO standards via CAAP; mandatory for public airports.
Definition
International Civil Aviation Organization standard for aerodrome design, planning, and operations; governs runway orientation, length, clear zone, taxiways.
Term
PIANC Guidelines
Example
PIANC harbor approach channel widths, turning basin design, and berthing force limits.
Definition
Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses; provides recommendations for port/harbor design, breakwater stability, and vessel maneuverability.
Term
RA 544 (Build-Operate-Transfer Law)
Example
Clark International Airport, Port of Subic Bay developed under BOT framework; design standards remain ICAO/PIANC/local.
Definition
Philippine law enabling private sector to develop large infrastructure (including ports, airports) under government-approved schemes and regulatory oversight.
Term
Design Storm / Return Period
Example
Runway design typically for 50-year extreme temperature; breakwater for 50–100 year design wave.
Definition
Extreme event (wind, wave, flood) expected once in N years (e.g., 50-year, 100-year storm); used to set design loads for hydraulic structures.
Must Remember
- Railroad cant formula: e = GV²/(127R). Constant 127 is FIXED. G = 1.435 m (standard gauge). Speed in km/h, radius in m. Result in meters.
- Runway length corrections are CUMULATIVE (multiply, not add): L_actual = L_basic × (1 + ΔL_elev) × (1 + ΔL_temp) × (1 + ΔL_grade). Elevation = +7% per 300 m; Temperature = +1% per °C ABOVE ISA (not above 15°C flat). ISA at elevation = 15 – 6.5×(elev/1000)°C.
- Harbor channel depth = Design vessel draft + Under-keel clearance. Depth measured below Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT), not mean water level. UKC typically 1.0–1.5 m for large vessels.
- Turning basin: minimum radius = 1.5 × L_ship; preferred = 2.0 × L_ship. Depth = channel depth (no shoaling inside basin).
- Wind rose determines runway orientation for ≥ 95% wind coverage. Runway heading, NOT runway gradient, is the design driver. Crosswind limit ≈ 10–15 m/s (36–54 km/h) for jets.
- ISA (International Standard Atmosphere) = 15°C at sea level, decreasing 6.5°C per 1000 m. At 1500 m elev., ISA = 5.25°C. Temperature correction applies ONLY if Airport Reference Temperature (ART) exceeds ISA.
- Equilibrium cant on railway curves balances centrifugal force at a design speed. If speed exceeds design, insufficient cant → outer rail carries extra load (flange wear, derailment). If speed reduced, equilibrium no longer holds → slight outward swing.
- Breakwater design: height ≥ design wave height + freeboard + wave setup/runup. Wave setup (η) and runup increase with slope steepness and wave steepness. Design for 50–100 year return storm; overtopping must be <5% allowable per PIANC.
- Mooring forces: wind (dominant in most climates) + current + wave drift + tide-induced surge. Size bollards, bits, and cleats for total horizontal load divided by line efficiency. Multiple loading cases (wind azimuth, current direction) required.
- RA 544 (Build-Operate-Transfer Law) enables private sector infrastructure development in Philippines. Engineering design standards (ICAO, PIANC, AISC, ACI, NSCP) remain mandatory regardless of operator/investor.
Last Minute Tips
- Runway temperature correction is a TRAP: Always calculate ISA = 15 – 6.5×(elev in km) FIRST. Then compare ART (given in problem) to ISA. Correction = +1% per °C OF EXCESS above ISA, NOT above flat 15°C. A hot airport at high elevation may have huge corrections.
- Cant formula constant 127 is identical for road superelevation AND railway cant, BUT railways must include gauge (G). If G is missing from the problem, assume standard 1.435 m. DO NOT forget gauge—it dramatically changes the answer.
- Channel depth is below TIDAL DATUM (LAT), not mean water level. If the problem states 'mean high water' or 'mean sea level,' YOU MUST ADJUST. LAT is typically 0.5–1.5 m below MSL in tidal areas.
- Runway corrections are MULTIPLICATIVE. Many students add them (wrong); write out: L = 2000 × (1.07) × (1.05) × (1.01), not L = 2000 + 140 + 100 + 20. Order: elevation first, temperature second, gradient last.
- Wind rose orientation for 95% coverage: If the problem shows a wind rose with two nearly equal peaks, the optimal runway heading is the BISECTOR or favors the stronger peak. Do NOT orient perpendicular to dominant wind (that is a classic mistake—you want headwind, not crosswind).
Comparison Tables
Rows
Values
- e = GV²/(127R)
- e = V²/(127R) [for vehicles, no gauge factor]
Property
Formula
Values
- 127 (includes gauge G)
- 127 (no gauge; implicit in unit conversion)
Property
Constant in formula
Values
- 100–150 mm (0.1–0.15 m)
- 100–150 mm (0.1–0.15 m) for high-speed; up to 10% for local roads
Property
Typical e_max
Values
- Balance centrifugal force on rails; prevent flange climbing
- Balance centrifugal force on vehicles; prevent side-slip
Property
Purpose
Values
- Essential on passenger lines; spiral length 0.5–1.0 m/s × V
- Essential on high-speed roads; spiral length ~0.01V² (m) for 0.6 m/s² jerk
Property
Transition curve
Values
- Outer rail bears full lateral load; flange wear, derailment risk
- Vehicle slides outward; skidding, rollover risk
Property
If cant is insufficient
Columns
- Parameter
- Railroad
- Road
Table Title
Railroad Cant vs. Road Superelevation
Rows
Values
- +7% per 300 m
- 0–25% (up to 3000 m elev.)
- Always for elev. > 300 m
Property
Elevation
Values
- +1% per °C above ISA
- 0–15% (hot climates)
- Only if ART > ISA for that elev.
Property
Temperature
Values
- ~1% per 0.1% slope
- 0–3% (avg. grade < 1%)
- For grades > 0.5%
Property
Gradient
Values
- Elevation → Temperature → Gradient (multiply sequentially)
- L_actual = L_basic × (1+Δe) × (1+Δt) × (1+Δg)
- Must follow correct order
Property
Application order
Columns
- Correction Type
- Formula / Rule
- Typical Range
- When Applied
Table Title
Runway Length Corrections (Cumulative Multipliers)
Rows
Values
- 3–4
- 1.0
- 4.0–5.0
Property
Small general cargo (≤5000 DWT)
Values
- 13–15
- 1.5
- 14.5–16.5
Property
Post-Panamax container (>5000–10000 TEU)
Values
- 12–13
- 1.5
- 13.5–14.5
Property
Panamax container (4500–5000 TEU)
Values
- 13–14
- 1.5
- 14.5–15.5
Property
Large bulk carrier (>50000 DWT)
Values
- 15–16
- 2.0
- 17.0–18.0
Property
Oil tanker (ULCC, >300,000 DWT)
Columns
- Vessel Class
- Loaded Draft (m)
- Under-Keel Clearance (m)
- Channel Depth Below LAT (m)
Table Title
Harbor Channel Depths (Examples)
Rows
Values
- Orient runway parallel to prevailing wind
- ≥ 95%
- N–S or E–W (matching dominant wind)
Property
Single strong prevailing wind direction
Values
- Orient runway to bisect or favor stronger direction
- Often only ≈ 85–90% achievable
- Compromise heading (e.g., NE–SW)
Property
Two distinct wind maxima (e.g., monsoon + trade)
Values
- Optimize for terrain/drainage/noise; wind secondary
- Can be low (≈ 70–80%)
- Topography-driven (avoid hills, use valleys)
Property
Weak/scattered winds (tropical calm-air region)
Values
- Single runway at best compromise; may accept lower coverage
- ≈ 90% acceptable for small airfield
- Chosen by wind rose; secondary considerations OK
Property
Space constraint (small airfield)
Columns
- Scenario
- Action
- Wind Coverage
- Typical Runway Heading
Table Title
Wind Coverage & Runway Orientation Decision
Rows
Values
- Boulders/armor units on sand/gravel core
- Deep-water (5–30 m); long fetch
- Permeable; energy dissipation; stable on gentle slopes (1:1.5–1:2)
Property
Rubble-mound (gravity-armor)
Values
- Hollow concrete/steel box; sand/rock backfill
- Medium depth (5–15 m); harbor entrance
- High cost; high strength; impermeable; must prevent undermining
Property
Caisson (cellular)
Values
- Steel or concrete piles; can be cantilever or braced
- Shallow water (1–5 m); low-energy sites
- Quick construction; low material; large bending moments; requires dredging toe
Property
Pile / Sheet-pile
Values
- Caisson + rubble-mound (hybrid)
- Variable depth; moderate to high energy
- Combines advantages; common for major ports
Property
Composite
Columns
- Type
- Material / Construction
- Typical Use
- Design Considerations
Table Title
Breakwater Types & Design Contexts
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