LET Secondary Principles and Strategies of Teaching — Questioning, Communication and Instructional MaterialsDetailed Explanation

Questioning Techniques: Types of Questions

Questions are the teacher's most powerful instructional tool. They diagnose learning, focus attention, review content, stimulate higher-order thinking, and invite participation. On the LET, questions about questioning are almost always scenario-based: you read a short classroom vignette and identify the type of question used or judge the teacher's technique. You must know two overlapping classification systems. SYSTEM 1 — CONVERGENT vs. DIVERGENT QUESTIONS This system describes the RANGE OF ACCEPTABLE ANSWERS. A CONVERGENT QUESTION has one correct or expected answer. It narrows thinking toward a single response. It is like a funnel drawing everything to one point. Examples: 'What is the capital of the Philippines?' (Manila) or 'What does DNA stand for?' These questions are precise and testable. They are most useful for checking factual recall, verifying basic comprehension, and establishing a common knowledge base before moving to deeper discussion. A DIVERGENT QUESTION is open-ended and accepts many possible answers. It expands thinking outward like a fan. It calls for imagination, prediction, opinion, or original reasoning. Examples: 'What might happen to Metro Manila if all vehicles used electric power?' or 'How else could the community solve its waste problem?' These questions are excellent for stimulating creative and critical thinking, generating discussion, and tapping prior experiences. LET ALERT: When a question begins with 'What if...?', 'How else...?', 'What do you think would happen if...?', or 'In your opinion...?', it is almost certainly DIVERGENT. SYSTEM 2 — LOW-LEVEL vs. HIGH-LEVEL QUESTIONS This system describes the LEVEL OF THINKING DEMANDED, anchored in Bloom's Revised Taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl). LOW-LEVEL (cognitive-memory) questions require REMEMBERING and UNDERSTANDING — the two lowest rungs of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy. Sample stems: 'Define...', 'List...', 'Identify...', 'What is...?', 'Who was...?'. These are appropriate for building the factual and conceptual base of a lesson. HIGH-LEVEL (thought-provoking) questions require APPLYING, ANALYZING, EVALUATING, or CREATING — the four higher rungs. Sample stems: 'How would you apply...?', 'What is the difference between...?', 'Which solution is most fair, and why?', 'Design a...', 'Predict what would happen if...'. These questions push learners to use knowledge, not just recall it. CRITICAL DISTINCTION: Convergent-divergent and low-level-high-level are related but NOT the same. Convergent-divergent describes the RANGE of answers; low-high describes the DEPTH of thinking. Most convergent questions are also low-level, and most divergent questions are also high-level — but not always. A convergent question can be high-level: 'Given the data in the table, which hypothesis is best supported?' (one best answer, but requires analysis). Examiners sometimes test this distinction specifically. EFFECTIVE QUESTIONING PRACTICE: Teachers should use a MIX of question types. Low-level questions build the scaffold; high-level questions build the house. A common error is over-relying on low-level, convergent questions because they are easier to evaluate — but this limits learners to surface understanding. DepEd's K-12 curriculum framework explicitly values higher-order thinking skills (HOTS), so the ability to craft and use high-level questions is expected of every licensed teacher.

Questioning Techniques: Wait Time, Probing, Prompting, and Redirecting

Knowing WHAT type of question to ask is only half the skill. The other half is WHAT TO DO after you ask — how long you pause, how you follow up, and how you spread participation. These are the techniques that separate a skillful questioner from someone who just fires questions at the class. WAIT TIME (Mary Budd Rowe) Wait time is the silent pause a teacher allows around a question. Researcher Mary Budd Rowe discovered that most teachers wait less than one second before calling on a student or answering their own question. Extending that pause to THREE TO FIVE SECONDS produces dramatic improvements: answers become longer and more complete, more pupils volunteer, wrong answers decrease, pupil-to-pupil discussion increases, and quieter and lower-achieving learners participate more. There are TWO TYPES of wait time: - WAIT TIME I: The pause AFTER the teacher asks the question, BEFORE calling on anyone. This gives all pupils time to think. It is the most commonly tested one on the LET. - WAIT TIME II: The pause AFTER a pupil responds, BEFORE the teacher reacts or moves on. This gives the respondent a chance to add more, gives other pupils time to agree or disagree, and signals that thinking, not speed, is valued. LET ALERT: If a scenario says 'The teacher waits about five seconds after asking the question before calling on a student,' the concept being described is WAIT TIME (specifically Wait Time I). The benefit is MORE THOUGHTFUL, LONGER ANSWERS and BROADER PARTICIPATION. COMMON MISTAKE: Rushing to fill silence or re-asking the question immediately. This trains pupils to stop thinking because they know the teacher will eventually answer for them or repeat the question. PROBING Probing follows a learner's initial response and pushes that SAME learner to THINK MORE DEEPLY about their own answer. The purpose is to deepen, extend, justify, or clarify. Common probing phrases: - 'Why do you think so?' - 'Can you explain further?' - 'What is your basis for that?' - 'Can you give an example?' - 'What do you mean by that?' A related tradition is SOCRATIC QUESTIONING — a sustained series of probing questions that guides learners to examine their reasoning, challenge assumptions, and arrive at understanding themselves rather than being told. The Socratic method is the philosophical ancestor of modern probing technique. PROMPTING Prompting is used when a learner is STUCK or PARTLY WRONG. The teacher gives HINTS, CUES, or a REPHRASING to scaffold the learner toward the correct answer, rather than simply telling them or moving on. Prompting preserves the learner's dignity and keeps them engaged. Examples: - 'Think about what we said yesterday about evaporation...' - 'The word I'm looking for starts with 'con'...' - 'Suppose you had PHP 50 and you spent PHP 20. How much is left?' The key distinction: prompting HELPS a stuck learner reach an answer; probing DEEPENS an answer already given. REDIRECTING Redirecting passes the SAME QUESTION to ANOTHER LEARNER to widen participation or when a learner cannot answer. Examples: 'That's a thought, Ana — what do you think, Carlos?' or simply 'Who else has an idea?' Redirecting distributes engagement across the class rather than depending on the same few volunteers. MEMORY DEVICE: Probe = DEEPEN. Prompt = HELP. Redirect = SPREAD. DISTRIBUTING QUESTIONS Skillful teachers spread questions across the WHOLE CLASS, not just eager volunteers in the front row. Best practices: - Ask the question FIRST, PAUSE, then call a name — so everyone has to prepare an answer, not just the named pupil. - Call on BOTH volunteers and non-volunteers. - Avoid predictable patterns (strictly row by row or alphabetically) that let pupils 'switch off' when it is not their turn. - Include quieter and lower-performing learners with questions at a level where they can succeed (differentiation). HANDLING RESPONSES The Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers (under RA 7836) and child-protection principles (RA 7610 — Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act) both require teachers to protect the dignity of every learner. How a teacher responds to wrong answers shapes the emotional safety of the classroom for risk-taking and learning: - NEVER ridicule a wrong answer — this discourages future participation. - For a CORRECT answer: give specific, genuine praise ('Excellent reasoning, because you connected two ideas.'). - For a WRONG or INCOMPLETE answer: use prompting or probing, not humiliation; preserve dignity. - Pose the question to the WHOLE CLASS before naming a respondent, so no single pupil is put on the spot unprepared. POOR QUESTIONING HABITS TO AVOID (commonly tested on LET): 1. Answering your own question — denies learners thinking time 2. Asking multiple questions at once ('What is photosynthesis, why is it important, and where does it happen?') — confusing and unfocused 3. Repeating every answer — trains pupils not to listen to classmates 4. Repeating every question — trains pupils to wait for the second delivery 5. Directing questions only to volunteers — excludes most of the class

Classroom Communication Skills

Teaching is fundamentally an act of communication. Every lesson delivery, every instruction, every response to a pupil's question is a communication event. Understanding how communication works — and how it breaks down — is essential for effective teaching and for answering LET items on this topic. THE COMMUNICATION MODEL The standard communication model has these components: - SENDER (Encoder): The teacher encodes the message — turns ideas into words, gestures, or visuals. - MESSAGE: The content, idea, or information being communicated. - CHANNEL: The medium through which the message travels — spoken words, written text, gestures, whiteboard, video, etc. - RECEIVER (Decoder): The pupil decodes the message — interprets what was sent. - FEEDBACK: The receiver's response, which lets the sender know if the message was understood. In the classroom, feedback includes raised hands, answers, nods, confused looks, or written outputs. - NOISE (Barriers): Anything that distorts or blocks the message. Noise can be: * PHYSICAL: poor acoustics, noise from outside, small print on the board, broken microphone * PHYSIOLOGICAL: fatigue, hunger, hearing/visual impairments, illness * PSYCHOLOGICAL: anxiety, fear, bias, low self-esteem, trauma * SEMANTIC: unfamiliar vocabulary, use of a language the learner does not understand well, ambiguous phrasing The teacher's job is to MINIMIZE NOISE and MAXIMIZE CLARITY at every step. KEY COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR TEACHERS 1. CLARITY Use language, pace, and vocabulary matched to the learners. Avoid ambiguity. For Grade 1 pupils, use simple words and short sentences; for Grade 6 pupils, you can use more complex structures but must still match the pupils' vocabulary range. In the Philippine context, teachers must navigate between Filipino, English, and the mother tongue (MTB-MLE in Grades 1–3 under DepEd Order No. 16, s. 2012) to maximize clarity for young learners. 2. VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL ALIGNMENT Research consistently shows that much of classroom meaning is carried NON-VERBALLY — through tone of voice, facial expression, eye contact, gestures, posture, and proximity. When verbal and non-verbal messages MATCH, communication is congruent and credible. When they CONTRADICT — for example, a teacher says 'That's a great answer!' in a flat, dismissive tone while looking away — the result is a MIXED MESSAGE that confuses pupils and undermines trust. The goal is congruence: body language and words saying the same thing. 3. ACTIVE LISTENING Effective teachers do not just transmit; they RECEIVE. Active listening means attending fully to what a pupil says (not thinking about the next question while the pupil speaks), paraphrasing to confirm understanding ('So you're saying that the plant needs light to make food?'), and responding to what the pupil ACTUALLY said, not what you expected them to say. Active listening models respectful discourse and helps teachers catch misconceptions early. 4. FEEDBACK Communication is TWO-WAY. Effective teachers constantly check: Was my message understood? They do this through formative questioning, observation of pupil behavior, seatwork, and exit slips. Pupils also need feedback from teachers on their performance — specific, constructive, and timely. Vague praise ('Good!') is less useful than specific praise ('You correctly identified the main idea AND gave a supporting detail — excellent!'). 5. MANAGING BARRIERS (NOISE) Physical barriers: ensure your voice projects to the back of the room, write large enough on the board, seat pupils with visual or hearing impairments closer to the front (a child protection and inclusion principle). Psychological barriers: create a safe, supportive climate where pupils feel safe to answer even if wrong (RA 7610 principle of child dignity). Never use sarcasm or public humiliation. Semantic barriers: preview unfamiliar vocabulary before using it in explanations; use the mother tongue to clarify concept in lower grades (MTB-MLE policy). COMMUNICATION IN THE CONTEXT OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Under the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers (promulgated under RA 7836), teachers are required to maintain professional, respectful, and nurturing communication with learners at all times. Communication that demeans, threatens, or embarrasses a pupil violates both professional ethics and RA 7610 (which protects children from all forms of abuse, including psychological abuse). Even the way a teacher communicates displeasure about a wrong answer must be managed with care and dignity.

Instructional Materials: Selection, Development, and Dale's Cone of Experience

Instructional materials (also called teaching aids or learning resources) are the objects, media, and tools that make abstract content concrete, engage multiple senses, and support the attainment of learning objectives. They range from the simplest chalkboard to realia to multimedia presentations. The key principle: materials do not teach by themselves — the TEACHER's purposeful mediation is what makes an aid instructional. A beautiful PowerPoint presentation shown without guidance, discussion, or connection to the objective is decoration, not instruction. DALE'S CONE OF EXPERIENCE Edgar Dale (1969) arranged learning experiences from the MOST CONCRETE (base of the cone) to the MOST ABSTRACT (tip of the cone). From bottom to top: 1. DIRECT PURPOSEFUL EXPERIENCES — actual, hands-on doing; the most concrete (e.g., planting actual seeds in a real garden) 2. CONTRIVED EXPERIENCES — simulations, models, mock-ups (e.g., using a model of the solar system) 3. DRAMATIZED EXPERIENCES — role-play, puppetry, dramatic activities 4. DEMONSTRATIONS — showing how something is done 5. STUDY TRIPS / FIELD TRIPS — going to the actual place or source 6. EXHIBITS — displays, museums, learning stations 7. MOTION PICTURES AND RECORDINGS — films, videos, audio recordings 8. STILL PICTURES AND RADIO — photographs, audio-only media 9. VISUAL SYMBOLS — charts, diagrams, maps, graphs 10. VERBAL SYMBOLS — printed and spoken words; the most abstract KEY APPLICATION PRINCIPLES (most important for the LET): - START CONCRETE, MOVE TO ABSTRACT: Begin with direct or contrived experiences, especially for young learners or new concepts, before relying on words alone. A Grade 1 pupil learning about 'subtraction' should first physically remove objects from a group before seeing the equation '5 − 2 = 3.' - THE BASE SUITS YOUNG AND BEGINNING LEARNERS: For pupils in Grades 1–3 or anyone encountering a new concept for the first time, start at the concrete levels (direct experience, realia, demonstration). - THE TIP SUITS OLDER OR EXPERIENCED LEARNERS: Verbal and visual symbols are efficient for learners who already have the concrete experience and conceptual framework to attach meaning to them. - DO NOT ATTACH RETENTION PERCENTAGES TO THE CONE: The famous figures ('people remember 10% of what they read, 90% of what they do') are NOT part of Dale's original work. They were added by others later and have been debunked as fabrications. The LET will NOT ask you to match percentages to levels of the cone. If an item attempts to test these figures, know that they are NOT attributed to Dale. SELECTION CRITERIA FOR INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Choosing the right material is a professional decision. The LET most often tests the FIRST criterion: 1. ALIGNMENT WITH OBJECTIVES (most important): The material must directly serve the learning objective. An engaging video that does not advance the lesson objective is a poor pedagogical choice, no matter how attractive it is. 2. APPROPRIATENESS TO LEARNERS: Suited to age, grade level, background knowledge, and cognitive development (e.g., Piaget's stages — concrete operational for Grades 1–4). 3. ACCURACY AND CURRENCY: Content must be correct and up-to-date. 4. CLARITY AND QUALITY: Legible, audible, and free of clutter. Every learner must be able to see or hear it. 5. PRACTICALITY: Available, affordable, safe, and manageable in the Philippine public school setting. 6. INTEREST AND MOTIVATION: Engages learners' attention without distracting from the learning goal. TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND PRINCIPLES OF USE BOARD WORK (chalkboard, whiteboard): The most universally available aid in Philippine public schools. Principles: write legibly and large enough for the back row, organize board space logically, erase irrelevant material to avoid distraction, maintain eye contact with learners as much as possible (do not speak to the board). REALIA: Real, actual objects (a real leaf, actual coins, a real thermometer). Realia is at or near the BASE of Dale's Cone — the most concrete type of aid. It gives direct sensory experience and is ideal for introducing new concepts to young learners. Example: bringing actual gumamela flowers for Grade 3 Science instead of showing a labeled diagram. MODELS AND MOCK-UPS: Three-dimensional representations used when the real object is too large, too small, dangerous, or unavailable (e.g., a model of the human heart). CHARTS, DIAGRAMS, MAPS: Visual symbols near the top of the cone — more abstract than realia or models but more concrete than words alone. Effective for organizing information and showing relationships. MULTIMEDIA AND PROJECTED MEDIA (slides, videos, interactive resources): Combine images, sound, and motion; powerful for showing processes, distant places, and phenomena impossible to bring into the classroom. Must support the objective, not replace the teacher. PRINCIPLES FOR PREPARING AND USING ANY MATERIAL: - SIMPLICITY: One main idea per visual; avoid clutter. - SIZE AND CLARITY: Large enough and loud enough for all learners to access. - PURPOSEFUL INTEGRATION: Introduce the material, guide attention to what matters, and debrief after. - SEQUENTIAL DISPLAY: Show a material only while it is in use; put it away afterward so it does not distract. - EQUIPMENT CHECK: Test technology (projectors, speakers) before the lesson — always have a BACKUP PLAN. - THE AID IS A MEANS, NOT THE END: The material serves the objective, never the other way around.

DIVERGENT: The question accepts many possible, equally valid answers — there is no single correct response. Different pupils will propose different changes based on their values and reasoning. It is open-ended and expands thinking outward. HIGH-LEVEL: The question requires pupils to EVALUATE (judge what changes are most important and why) and CREATE (design a course of action). It goes well beyond recall or simple understanding. The demand to justify ('WHY?') specifically invokes higher-order reasoning. This is an excellent question for developing HOTS, which is a central goal of the K-12 curriculum.

WAIT TIME II: The three-second pause AFTER Ryan's answer (not before — that would be Wait Time I) gives Ryan a moment to reflect and signals that the teacher values thinking, not speed. PROMPTING: Ryan gave an incorrect answer (nutrient absorption is primarily in the small intestine, not the large intestine). Rather than saying 'Wrong!' and moving on, Teacher Maria gives a HINT ('which organ...?', 'think back to yesterday') to SCAFFOLD Ryan toward the correct answer. This preserves Ryan's dignity (consistent with the Code of Ethics under RA 7836 and child protection under RA 7610) and keeps him cognitively engaged.

OPTION B (actual visits): Closest to the base of Dale's Cone — a CONTRIVED EXPERIENCE (bringing real community helpers into the classroom is a controlled, purposeful version of a direct experience). Grade 1 pupils in the concrete operational stage (Piaget) benefit most from real, sensory encounters. OPTION A (photos): Higher on the cone — STILL PICTURES are near the upper portion, more abstract than a live encounter but more concrete than words alone. OPTION D (video): MOTION PICTURES AND RECORDINGS — even higher on the cone (more abstract than photos in a controlled setting, though they add motion and sound). OPTION C (worksheet): VISUAL and VERBAL SYMBOLS — near the abstract tip; appropriate for reinforcement AFTER concrete introduction, not ideal for first encounter. BEST CHOICE = B, because Grade 1 pupils are young learners encountering community helpers in a formal academic context; starting at the most concrete level (direct/contrived experience) maximizes meaning-making, engagement, and retention.

Teacher Fe's words say she is happy (verbal channel), but her tone (monotone), facial expression (no smile), and overall affect (formal, stiff) say the opposite (non-verbal channels). The pupils correctly read the non-verbal signals as more authentic, because humans naturally give greater weight to non-verbal cues when verbal and non-verbal conflict. Teacher Fe should strive for CONGRUENCE — ensuring her tone, facial expressions, gestures, and eye contact align with and reinforce her words. When she says she loves teaching the class, her voice and face should reflect that genuine enthusiasm. Additional note: Using formal English vocabulary with Grade 3 pupils may also create a SEMANTIC BARRIER — another communication breakdown to address.

According to Dale's Cone: VIDEO = Motion Pictures and Recordings (upper portion, more abstract); CHART = Visual Symbols (near tip, abstract); OREO COOKIE MODEL = Contrived/Direct Experience (near base, most concrete of the three). The correct pedagogical sequence per Dale's Cone is CONCRETE FIRST, THEN ABSTRACT: start with the Oreo cookie activity so pupils have a hands-on, sensory experience of the phases, then move to the chart to organize and label the experience, then use the video to see the real phenomenon. Teacher Gina reversed the sequence. Her colleague is WRONG to say the lesson moves 'from abstract to concrete' as if that is the correct direction — Dale's design principle is the OPPOSITE: concrete to abstract.