LET Secondary Curriculum Development — Foundations, Types and Elements of CurriculumDetailed Explanation

Defining Curriculum

The word 'curriculum' comes from the Latin word 'currere,' which means 'to run' or a 'runway' — suggesting a course or path that learners follow toward a destination. This root meaning is important because the LET sometimes directly asks about it. Over time, educators have developed three major conceptions of curriculum that you must be able to distinguish. The TRADITIONAL or SUBJECT-MATTER VIEW defines curriculum as the body of knowledge, subjects, or disciplines that students must learn and complete. In this view, the curriculum is essentially the list of courses offered — like the list of learning areas (Filipino, English, Mathematics, Science, Araling Panlipunan, MAPEH, ESP, MTB-MLE) that appear in the K to 12 curriculum of DepEd. This is the oldest and most common view. The PROGRESSIVE or EXPERIENCE VIEW, associated with John Dewey and later with Caswell and Campbell, defines curriculum as the total learning experiences of the learner, both inside and outside the classroom, that are planned and guided by the school. Here, a Grade 3 pupil learning about community helpers by visiting the barangay hall or joining a school program is part of the curriculum, not just what is written in the textbook. The MODERN VIEW synthesizes both: curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences, formally designed and delivered by the school, intended to achieve specific educational outcomes. This is the most widely accepted definition today and is aligned with how DepEd designs and implements the K to 12 curriculum. Among the key curricularists, FRANKLIN BOBBITT is called the Father of Curriculum. He treated curriculum-making as a science and believed it should prepare learners for adult life through clearly specified activities and objectives. WILLIAM KILPATRICK introduced the Project Method — a learner-centered, purposeful activity as the unit of learning. HOLLIS CASWELL defined curriculum as the total set of experiences learners have under the school's guidance. RALPH TYLER and HILDA TABA developed the classic curriculum development models (explored fully in Chapter 2).

Foundations of Curriculum

Every decision about what goes into the curriculum — what to teach, why, how, and to whom — rests on four FOUNDATIONS. Think of these as the four pillars that support the entire structure of curriculum design. The LET frequently tests these through matching or identification items asking which foundation answers a particular question or explains a specific curriculum feature. FOUNDATION 1: PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION This foundation answers the question: 'What should be taught and why?' It deals with the aims, values, and purposes of education. Four major educational philosophies shape curriculum design: - PERENNIALISM: Education should focus on enduring, universal truths, classical works, and the Great Books. The curriculum is teacher-centered and emphasizes the classics and intellectual development. Key thinkers: Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler. Example: A school that requires all high school students to read Rizal's novels and classical literature. - ESSENTIALISM: Education should teach the essential, basic skills and core academic disciplines — the 'Three Rs' (Reading, wRiting, aRithmetic). It emphasizes a back-to-basics approach and mastery of fundamental knowledge. Key thinker: William Bagley. Example: DepEd's focus on foundational literacy and numeracy in the early grades under the K to 12 program. - PROGRESSIVISM: Education should be centered on the needs, interests, and experiences of the learner. Learning by doing, problem-solving, and critical thinking are central. Key thinker: John Dewey. Example: A teacher who uses project-based learning or the Project Method so Grade 3 pupils solve real community problems. - RECONSTRUCTIONISM: Education is a tool to reform and improve society. The curriculum should address social justice, inequality, and pressing social issues. Key thinkers: Theodore Brameld, George Counts. Example: A curriculum that includes lessons on environmental protection, poverty alleviation, and human rights — reflecting DepEd's emphasis on values education. FOUNDATION 2: HISTORICAL FOUNDATION This foundation traces how curriculum thought has evolved over time — from the scientific curriculum-making of Bobbitt and Charters in the early 1900s, through the Tyler and Taba models in the mid-20th century, to the critical and constructivist approaches of today. It reminds curriculum designers that every curriculum reflects the concerns, fears, and hopes of its historical era. In the Philippines, the shift from the 10-year basic education cycle to the K to 12 program under RA 10533 (2013) is a product of historical analysis of what Filipino graduates needed to be globally competitive. FOUNDATION 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION This foundation answers: 'How do learners learn and how do they develop?' It draws on the three major families of learning theory: - BEHAVIORISM (Thorndike, Skinner, Pavlov): Learning is a change in behavior through conditioning and reinforcement. Curriculum implications: clearly stated behavioral objectives, drill and practice, immediate feedback, rewards. Example: A Grade 1 teacher using star charts to reinforce correct reading responses. - COGNITIVISM (Piaget, Bruner, Ausubel, Gagne): Learning is an active mental process. Curriculum implications: readiness (Piaget's developmental stages), spiral curriculum (Bruner), advance organizers (Ausubel), conditions of learning (Gagne). Example: A Grade 2 teacher introducing addition before multiplication, respecting the learner's cognitive stage. - HUMANISM (Maslow, Rogers): Learning is personal growth and self-actualization. Curriculum implications: the whole child, emotional safety, intrinsic motivation, learner autonomy. Example: A teacher ensuring pupils feel safe, accepted, and valued before expecting them to perform academically — connecting to the Philippine Child Protection Policy under DepEd Order No. 40, s. 2012, and RA 7610. FOUNDATION 4: SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION This foundation answers: 'What does society need and value?' Culture, national identity, social change, globalization, community needs, and workplace demands all shape the curriculum. In the Philippines, this foundation explains: - Why MTB-MLE (Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education) was integrated into Grades 1 to 3 — to honor cultural identity and improve comprehension. - Why Araling Panlipunan exists — to develop responsible Filipino citizenship. - Why values education (Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao or ESP) is a distinct learning area — to address moral and social development.

Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools

This is the MOST HEAVILY TESTED topic in this chapter on the LET. Allan Glatthorn identified SEVEN TYPES of curriculum that simultaneously operate in any school. At any given moment in a school day, all seven types are at work — they are not sequential stages but concurrent realities. The LET tests these through scenario-based questions where you must identify which type is being described. Here is a detailed explanation of each type: TYPE 1: RECOMMENDED CURRICULUM This is the curriculum proposed by scholars, professional organizations, government agencies, and international bodies as what OUGHT to be taught. It is the ideal — what experts say schools should include. In the Philippines, DepEd, CHED, and the Professional Regulation Commission all make curriculum recommendations. Example: When DepEd issues a policy saying all basic education learners should achieve functional literacy, that is a recommended curriculum statement. TYPE 2: WRITTEN CURRICULUM This is the official, documented curriculum — what is actually written down and formally prescribed. It includes curriculum guides, syllabi, lesson plans, course outlines, textbooks-as-planned, and competency frameworks. In the Philippines, the K to 12 curriculum guides issued by DepEd are the prime example of the written curriculum. This is the bridge between the ideal (recommended) and the actual (taught). TYPE 3: TAUGHT CURRICULUM This is what the teacher ACTUALLY delivers in the classroom — the curriculum as enacted in real time. Even when a teacher follows the curriculum guide exactly, real-time decisions (skipping an activity because of time, spending extra time on a difficult concept, responding to pupil questions) make the taught curriculum somewhat different from the written one. This is the teacher's operational curriculum. TYPE 4: SUPPORTED CURRICULUM This refers to the RESOURCES AND MATERIALS that enable and support curriculum delivery. It includes textbooks, modules, ICT devices (tablets, computers), laboratory equipment, the school library, manipulatives, and even adequately trained teachers and sufficient budget. When a school principal allocates funds for science apparatus or reading corners, that is a supported curriculum decision. Important: the supported curriculum is about MATERIALS AND RESOURCES, not the teaching act itself. TYPE 5: ASSESSED CURRICULUM This is the curriculum that is TESTED and EVALUATED. It includes all formal and informal assessments: quizzes, unit tests, periodic examinations, performance tasks, portfolios, and national assessments like the National Achievement Test (NAT). The LET itself is an assessed curriculum for teacher education. A crucial insight: there is often a gap between what is taught (taught curriculum) and what is tested (assessed curriculum) — and when this gap exists, it signals a curriculum alignment problem. TYPE 6: LEARNED CURRICULUM This is what learners ACTUALLY LEARN and RETAIN — the real outcomes of the educational process. It is the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that pupils can actually demonstrate after instruction. This is the ultimate measure of curriculum effectiveness. The gap between the taught curriculum and the learned curriculum represents the degree of learning loss or learning difficulty. TYPE 7: HIDDEN CURRICULUM This is the UNINTENDED, UNPLANNED curriculum — the values, norms, attitudes, and behaviors that learners absorb from the school culture, teacher behavior, classroom environment, peer interactions, and school rules, even though none of these were explicitly planned as lessons. The hidden curriculum is never written in any document, but it is often the most powerful curriculum of all. Examples: a teacher who is always punctual teaches punctuality; a school where only boys are called for leadership roles unconsciously teaches gender stereotypes; pupils who see their teacher treat all students fairly learn the value of justice. CRITICAL DISTINCTIONS FOR THE LET: - RECOMMENDED vs. WRITTEN: The recommended curriculum is what agencies SAY should be taught (the ideal/policy). The written curriculum is what is actually DOCUMENTED (the guide, the syllabus). - TAUGHT vs. LEARNED: The taught curriculum is what the teacher DELIVERS; the learned curriculum is what pupils ACTUALLY ABSORB. A gap between them means some learning has not occurred. - HIDDEN: Always unplanned, never documented, absorbed from school culture and teacher modeling. - SUPPORTED: Always about RESOURCES (materials, equipment, technology) — not about the teaching process. ADDITIONAL TYPES (know for recognition): - NULL CURRICULUM: What schools deliberately choose NOT to teach — topics or subjects that are excluded from the formal program. - CONCOMITANT CURRICULUM: Values and learnings taught at home or in the community that parallel and support the school curriculum.

Elements or Components of Curriculum

Every curriculum — from a simple one-period lesson plan to a national education framework — contains FOUR ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS or COMPONENTS. These elements are not independent; they are interconnected and must ALIGN with each other for effective curriculum design. The LET tests these elements both directly (define or identify) and indirectly (through scenario items about curriculum alignment and coherence). ELEMENT 1: AIMS, GOALS, AND OBJECTIVES This element answers the question: 'What should learners achieve? What is the desired outcome?' It defines the PURPOSE and DIRECTION of the curriculum. Three levels are distinguished: - AIMS: The broadest, most general statements of educational purpose. They apply to the entire educational system or a whole educational level and are long-range. Example: DepEd's aim to produce 'holistically developed Filipino learners with 21st century skills' is a system-wide aim. - GOALS: More specific than aims, goals are set for a particular subject area or grade level. They describe the general direction of a course or program. Example: 'By the end of Grade 3, learners will be able to read simple Philippine folktales with understanding' is a subject-level goal for Mother Tongue. - OBJECTIVES: The most specific and measurable statements of intended learning for a single lesson or unit. Objectives are written in terms of observable, measurable learner behavior across the three domains: Cognitive (knowledge and thinking), Affective (attitudes and values), and Psychomotor (physical skills). Example: 'After the lesson, the pupil will be able to add two-digit numbers without regrouping with at least 80% accuracy.' ELEMENT 2: CONTENT / SUBJECT MATTER This element answers: 'What knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values should be included?' It is the WHAT of the curriculum — the substance and information that will be taught. Content must be selected and organized according to several criteria: - SCOPE: How broad or deep is the content? - SEQUENCE: In what order should content be arranged (from simple to complex, from concrete to abstract, from known to unknown)? - CONTINUITY: Is the same concept revisited over time with increasing depth? (This is the basis for the spiral curriculum approach in K to 12.) - INTEGRATION: Are topics from different subjects connected and related? - BALANCE: Is there an appropriate distribution of time and emphasis across all content areas? ELEMENT 3: LEARNING EXPERIENCES / METHODS This element answers: 'How will the content be taught? What learning activities, strategies, and resources will be used?' It is the HOW of the curriculum. This element bridges the objectives and content with actual classroom practice. It includes: - Instructional strategies (direct instruction, cooperative learning, inquiry-based learning, project-based learning) - Learning activities (laboratory work, role play, field trips, group discussion) - Resources and materials (aligned with the supported curriculum) - Teacher-learner interactions ELEMENT 4: EVALUATION / ASSESSMENT This element answers: 'How will we determine whether the intended outcomes were achieved?' It is the MEASUREMENT component. It includes all forms of assessment — formative (quizzes, recitation, observation during the lesson) and summative (unit tests, quarterly exams, performance tasks, portfolios). Evaluation serves two purposes: to determine how much learners have learned (assessment OF learning) and to provide feedback for improving instruction (assessment FOR learning). CURRICULUM ALIGNMENT: The four elements must ALIGN — meaning the objectives, content, learning experiences, and assessment must all point toward the same intended outcomes. This alignment is called CONSTRUCTIVE ALIGNMENT (from Biggs) or simply curriculum coherence. Misalignment is a major curriculum weakness. Examples of misalignment: - Teaching creative writing (learning experience) but only testing grammar rules (assessment). - Setting higher-order thinking objectives but only delivering lecture-based, knowledge-recall lessons. - Teaching a concept but not including it in the test. Note: These four elements directly correspond to TYLER'S FOUR FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS (Chapter 2): What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided? How can these experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether purposes are being attained?

Curriculum Determinants

Beyond the four foundations, several DETERMINANTS shape what actually gets built into the curriculum. Determinants are the forces, factors, and conditions that influence curriculum decisions. The LET tests these by asking: 'What factor is influencing this curriculum decision?' Knowing the determinants helps you understand WHY the curriculum looks the way it does — not just in theory, but in the actual Philippine educational setting. DETERMINANT 1: THE LEARNER The learner is the most important determinant. Curriculum must be appropriate for the developmental stage, needs, interests, prior knowledge, and readiness of the learner. A curriculum for Grade 1 pupils (6-7 years old, in Piaget's preoperational stage) must be vastly different from one for Grade 6 pupils (11-12 years old, in the concrete operational to formal operational transition). Under RA 7836 and the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers, Article IV Section 1, the teacher's primary concern is the learner's welfare and growth. DETERMINANT 2: SOCIETY AND CULTURE The curriculum must serve the needs of society and reflect the values of the culture. National goals, social issues, the demands of the community and the workplace, and the aspirations of the Filipino people all pressure curriculum design. The K to 12 program, for example, is designed to make Filipino graduates globally competitive while remaining rooted in Filipino values and culture. DETERMINANT 3: KNOWLEDGE AND THE DISCIPLINES The structure, advances, and evolution of the subject fields themselves shape what is included in the curriculum. New discoveries in science, new theories in mathematics, and new scholarship in history all demand curriculum updates. This is why DepEd regularly reviews and revises curriculum guides. DETERMINANT 4: PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY Beliefs about the aims of education (philosophy) and about how learning happens (psychology) are powerful determinants — they were detailed as foundations in the previous section. DETERMINANT 5: POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND LEGAL FACTORS Government policy, legislation, funding, and international commitments shape the curriculum. In the Philippines: - RA 10533 (Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013) is the legal basis of the K to 12 curriculum, mandating 13 years of basic education. - RA 7836 (Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994) ensures that only qualified, licensed teachers implement the curriculum. - RA 7610 (Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act) shapes child protection policies that are embedded in the school and curriculum culture. - DepEd orders, memoranda, and budget allocations are economic and political determinants. DETERMINANT 6: TECHNOLOGY The tools and media available for teaching and learning shape how the curriculum is designed and delivered. The integration of ICT in K to 12, the use of e-learning modules during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the shift to various learning modalities (modular, online, blended, face-to-face) under DepEd's Basic Education Learning Continuity Plan (BE-LCP) are all examples of technology as a curriculum determinant.

Curriculum and Related Terms

The LET tests important distinctions between curriculum and related concepts. Sharpening these distinctions prevents costly mistakes on the exam. CURRICULUM vs. SYLLABUS: A SYLLABUS is a PART of the curriculum — it is the outline of topics, competencies, and activities for a specific subject or course. The curriculum is the WHOLE; the syllabus is one component. Example: The DepEd curriculum for Grade 4 English is the curriculum; the list of topics and competencies for Grade 4 English for one quarter is part of the syllabus. CURRICULUM vs. INSTRUCTION: CURRICULUM is the PLAN — it answers WHAT will be learned and WHY. INSTRUCTION is the DELIVERY — it answers HOW learning will happen in real time. The curriculum is designed before teaching; instruction is what happens during teaching. A curriculum guide is curriculum; the teacher's actual lesson delivery is instruction. FORMAL vs. NON-FORMAL vs. INFORMAL CURRICULUM: - FORMAL CURRICULUM: The structured, official school program — what DepEd mandates and schools formally deliver. - NON-FORMAL CURRICULUM: Organized educational activities OUTSIDE the formal school system — livelihood training, community learning centers, Continuing Education programs, Alternative Learning System (ALS). - INFORMAL CURRICULUM: The unstructured, spontaneous learning from daily life, environment, family, peers, and media — not planned by any institution. CURRICULUM MAPPING: The process of reviewing and charting the curriculum to ensure that all intended competencies are covered, sequenced, and aligned across grade levels and subjects. Schools in the Philippines do curriculum mapping as part of the School Improvement Plan (SIP) and DepEd's Quality Assurance processes. CURRICULUM REFORM vs. CURRICULUM REVISION: - REFORM: A fundamental, large-scale change in the curriculum (e.g., the shift from the 10-year basic education cycle to the K to 12 program). - REVISION: A smaller, incremental update to an existing curriculum (e.g., updating a Grade 5 competency in the curriculum guide).

The pupils' spontaneous trash-picking behavior was not planned, written, or taught as a formal lesson. It emerged from the school environment, the values modeled by Teacher Gina, and the overall school culture. This is the defining characteristic of the hidden curriculum — it is unplanned, undocumented, but powerfully shapes learner attitudes and behavior.

Curriculum alignment requires that all four elements — aims/objectives, content, learning experiences, and evaluation — point toward the same intended outcomes. When the assessment does not match the objectives, learning is not properly measured and the curriculum's goals are undermined. The LET tests this concept frequently through scenario items where teachers notice a gap between what they intend and what they test.

Whenever a curriculum debate involves VALUES, AIMS, or the fundamental PURPOSE of education — particularly what should be taught and why — that is a philosophical foundation question. Perennialism argues for timeless, classical content; Progressivism argues for learner-centered, experience-based, and relevant content. Recognizing these two philosophical positions allows you to correctly identify the foundation and the competing philosophies in the LET scenario.

(a) Official DepEd curriculum guides are formal, documented prescriptions — the written curriculum. (b) The teacher's real-time, actual classroom delivery — including adaptations not in the plan — is the taught curriculum. (c) The procurement of materials and resources to support instruction is the supported curriculum. (d) Pupils learning values from teacher modeling (not from any planned lesson) is the hidden curriculum. Use the three checks: Who is acting? What stage? Planned or unplanned?

(a) It is written for a SINGLE LESSON and is specific and measurable (read aloud, with correct pronunciation and expression) — these are the hallmarks of an OBJECTIVE, not a goal (which is broader) or an aim (which is broadest and system-wide). (b) Reading aloud is a physical, vocal performance — it belongs to the psychomotor domain. However, 'appropriate expression' requires understanding the meaning of the poem, bringing in the cognitive domain. The LET sometimes asks about the primary domain, which in this case is psychomotor.

These two laws appear frequently as options in LET items about the legal and political determinants of curriculum. RA 10533 is the CURRICULUM LAW — it defines the structure, duration, and key features of basic education. RA 7836 is the TEACHER PROFESSIONALIZATION LAW — it requires passing the LET before one can be called a professional teacher and implement the curriculum in public schools. Additionally, RA 7610 shapes the child protection culture embedded in the curriculum and school environment.