GELE Surveying (Geomatics) — Spiral (Transition) CurvesMisconception Buster
If you have been missing Spiral (Transition) Curves questions on your GELE mocks, the cause is almost always a misconception. This page lists the ones Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) — Board of Geodetic Engineering exploits most often in the GELE Surveying (Geomatics) subtest and shows how to correct them before exam day.
Exam context
On the GELE 2026, the Surveying (Geomatics) subtest carries a "Core" weight in Professional Regulation Commission (PRC) — Board of Geodetic Engineering's pattern. Spiral (Transition) Curves lands at position 6th out of 9 in the standard review order. Target score is 70% weighted average, no sub-test below 50%, and roughly a meaningful share of items come from Surveying (Geomatics) on a typical GELE paper.
Spiral (Transition) Curves - Misconception Buster
Spiral (transition) curves are a perennial source of lost marks in the PRC Civil Engineer Licensure Examination. Because the topic mixes angular measure (radians vs. degrees), quadratic relationships, and unit-sensitive formulas, a single misconception can cascade into multiple wrong answers. This guide identifies the 10 most dangerous wrong beliefs — ranked from most exam-critical to least — explains why they feel intuitive, and includes trap questions modelled on actual board-exam item styles. Master these corrections and you will avoid the most common point-losses in the Surveying component of the CE board exam.
Summary
The ten misconceptions in this guide cluster around four root causes, each responsible for repeated board-exam mark losses: (1) UNIT ERRORS — always confirm whether θ_s is in radians or degrees before using it, and always use V in km/h with the 127 constant; (2) QUADRATIC vs LINEAR thinking — the spiral angle grows with (ℓ/L_s)², not (ℓ/L_s); this is the single most counterintuitive fact about spirals and the most frequently tested; (3) FORMULA IDENTITY CONFUSION — throw ≠ shift (factor of 4 difference), and spiral angle ≠ circular curve central angle; (4) GEOMETRY REFERENCE ERRORS — L_s runs from TS to SC, not from PI; R in the superelevation formula is always the circular curve radius; and friction factor f is bounded by code-mandated f_max. Master these four root causes and you will eliminate the vast majority of spiral-curve errors on the PRC Civil Engineer Licensure Examination. Always write the unit at every intermediate step, sketch the TS–SC–CS–ST layout before solving stationing problems, and verify that 2θ_s ≤ I before accepting any spiral length as feasible.
Misconceptions
The spiral angle θ_s = L_s / (2R) gives the answer directly in DEGREES.
Tags
- unit_error
- formula_confusion
- critical_calculation
Topic
Spiral Angle
Severity
critical
Exam Impact
Any problem asking for θ_s in degrees, or feeding θ_s into subsequent calculations (e.g., the angle at a point), will produce a completely wrong numerical answer if the radian result is used as if it were degrees.
The Reality
The formula θ_s = L_s/(2R) yields the spiral angle in RADIANS because it is derived from arc-length geometry (arc = Rθ). To convert to degrees, multiply by (180/π) ≈ 57.296, or equivalently use θ_s = L_s(90°)/(πR). Skipping this conversion introduces a factor-of-57 error — a catastrophic mistake.
Trap Question
Question
A spiral transition curve has a length L_s = 60 m and is connected to a circular curve of radius R = 200 m. What is the spiral angle θ_s in degrees?
Explanation
The formula θ_s = L_s/(2R) is derived from arc-length geometry and is inherently in radians. Multiplying by 180/π gives the degree equivalent. The wrong answer of 0.15° is more than 57 times smaller than the truth — a clear signal of the unit error.
Wrong Answer
θ_s = 60 / (2 × 200) = 0.15° (student omits conversion)
Correct Answer
θ_s = 0.15 rad × (180/π) = 8.59°
Misconception Id
M1
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
θ_s = 80/(2×300) = 0.1333 rad × (180/π) = 7.64°. Always state the unit at the radian stage and convert explicitly before writing the final answer in degrees.
Incorrect Approach
L_s = 80 m, R = 300 m → θ_s = 80/(2×300) = 0.1333 → student writes θ_s = 0.1333° (treating radians as degrees).
Why Students Believe It
Students see an equation and assume the result is already in the 'usual' unit they work with — degrees. Because most highway geometry problems express angles in degrees, they skip the radian-to-degree conversion and write the numerical result of L_s/(2R) straight into a degree answer box.
The angle at any point along the spiral increases LINEARLY with distance from the TS (Tangent-to-Spiral point).
Tags
- quadratic_law
- conceptual_gap
- common_error
Topic
Spiral Angle at Intermediate Points
Severity
critical
Exam Impact
Every problem asking for the deflection angle, offset, or chord at an intermediate point on the spiral requires the quadratic relationship. Applying a linear ratio produces an answer that is exactly double the correct value at the midpoint — a 100% error.
The Reality
On a spiral (Euler spiral / clothoid), curvature increases linearly with distance, which means the angle increases with the SQUARE of the distance ratio: θ = θ_s × (ℓ/L_s)². At the midpoint (ℓ = L_s/2), the angle is only θ_s/4, not θ_s/2. This quadratic law is fundamental and is directly tested on board exams.
Trap Question
Question
A spiral of length L_s = 80 m connects to a circular arc of R = 300 m. The spiral angle is 7.64°. What is the spiral angle at a point 20 m from the TS?
Explanation
At ℓ = 20 m out of 80 m, the distance ratio is 0.25, and its square is 0.0625. The angle is only 6.25% of the full spiral angle — not 25% as linear thinking suggests. The quadratic law means the spiral is very flat near the TS and curves more sharply approaching the SC (Spiral-to-Circle).
Wrong Answer
θ = 7.64° × (20/80) = 1.91° (linear, incorrect)
Correct Answer
θ = 7.64° × (20/80)² = 7.64° × 0.0625 = 0.478°
Misconception Id
M2
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
θ = θ_s × (ℓ/L_s)² = 7.64° × (40/80)² = 7.64° × 0.25 = 1.91°. The quadratic factor (ℓ/L_s)² is the key difference from a circular curve.
Incorrect Approach
θ_s = 7.64°; at ℓ = 40 m (midpoint of L_s = 80 m): student writes θ = 7.64° × (40/80) = 3.82° (wrong — linear assumption).
Why Students Believe It
Circular curves use a linear relationship between arc length and central angle (Δ = L/R). Students carry this intuition to spirals and assume the same proportionality — if halfway along the spiral, the angle must be half the total spiral angle.
In the formula e + f = V²/(127R), the constant 127 can be replaced by other values or the formula works with V in m/s.
Tags
- unit_error
- formula_confusion
- critical_calculation
Topic
Superelevation and Design Speed
Severity
critical
Exam Impact
Any superelevation problem will yield a grossly incorrect e + f value if the wrong unit combination is used. Board problems typically state V in km/h, so 127 is the correct constant — but students who convert V to m/s first and still use 127 lose full marks.
The Reality
The constant 127 is specifically derived for V in km/h and R in metres: centripetal ratio = V²/(gR) with V converted: V(m/s) = V(km/h)/3.6, so [V/3.6]²/(9.81 × R) = V²/(9.81 × 12.96 × R) ≈ V²/(127.1R). If V is in m/s, use e + f = v²/(9.81R). Mixing units by using 127 with m/s gives a result 12.96 times too small.
Trap Question
Question
A highway curve has R = 500 m. The design speed is 90 km/h. What is the required value of (e + f)?
Explanation
The 127 constant is valid ONLY when V is in km/h and R is in metres. Converting V to m/s and still using 127 gives an answer that is about 12.96 times too small. The correct approach is to use V = 90 km/h directly in the formula.
Wrong Answer
V = 90/3.6 = 25 m/s; e + f = 25²/(127 × 500) = 625/63500 = 0.00984 (unit mismatch)
Correct Answer
e + f = 90²/(127 × 500) = 8100/63500 = 0.1276 ≈ 0.128
Misconception Id
M3
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
Keep V in km/h: e + f = 80²/(127 × 300) = 6400/38100 = 0.168. Alternatively in m/s: e + f = 22.22²/(9.81 × 300) = 493.7/2943 = 0.168. Both give 0.168 when the correct constant is used.
Incorrect Approach
V = 80 km/h converted to 22.22 m/s; student uses e + f = 22.22²/(127 × 300) = 493.7/38100 = 0.013 (wrong — should not use 127 with m/s).
Why Students Believe It
Students confuse this with the physics formula for centripetal acceleration (v² = aR, with v in m/s), or they derive it themselves using g = 9.81 m/s² and forget the unit-conversion factor. Some recall '127' as an approximation and wonder if it changes with g.
The throw (tangent offset at the spiral end) and the shift p are the same thing.
Tags
- formula_confusion
- common_error
- geometry
Topic
Spiral Elements — Throw and Shift
Severity
major
Exam Impact
Board problems specifically ask for either the 'throw' (y_s or tangent offset at SC) or the 'shift' (p) as separate items in the same problem. Substituting one for the other loses full marks on both parts.
The Reality
These are two distinct geometric elements: (1) The THROW (y-offset at the SC point, measured from the initial tangent) ≈ L_s²/(6R). (2) The SHIFT p (the amount the circular arc is moved inward to accommodate the spiral, i.e., the perpendicular offset of the shifted centre) ≈ L_s²/(24R). The shift p is exactly ONE-QUARTER of the throw. Confusing them causes a factor-of-4 error.
Trap Question
Question
A spiral has L_s = 100 m and R = 400 m. What is the shift p of the circular curve?
Explanation
The shift p is the inward setback of the circular arc centre needed to accommodate the spiral. It equals L_s²/(24R) — one-quarter of the throw formula L_s²/(6R). Using the wrong denominator gives a value four times too large.
Wrong Answer
p = L_s²/(6R) = 10000/2400 = 4.17 m (student uses throw formula for shift)
Correct Answer
p = L_s²/(24R) = 10000/9600 = 1.042 m
Misconception Id
M4
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
Throw = L_s²/(6R) = 6400/1800 = 3.56 m. Shift p = L_s²/(24R) = 6400/7200 = 0.889 m. Note: p = throw/4. Both must be known and distinguished.
Incorrect Approach
L_s = 80 m, R = 300 m; student calculates p = L_s²/(6R) = 6400/1800 = 3.56 m for the shift (wrong — this is the throw).
Why Students Believe It
Both the throw and the shift describe lateral displacements of the spiral geometry, and both involve the expression L_s²/(something × R). Students see two similar-looking formulas and assume they represent the same quantity, or they memorise only one and apply it universally.
A spiral curve can be omitted for any circular curve as long as superelevation is applied.
Tags
- conceptual_gap
- design_criteria
Topic
Purpose of Spiral Curves
Severity
major
Exam Impact
Conceptual questions and minimum-spiral-length problems require understanding BOTH functions. Knowing only the superelevation role leads to wrong answers in questions that ask why a spiral is needed or how L_s is determined.
The Reality
The spiral serves two distinct but related purposes: (1) GEOMETRIC transition — radius changes from ∞ to R gradually so the driver can steer smoothly; (2) SUPERELEVATION RUNOFF — the road surface is banked over the length L_s so the full superelevation e is reached exactly at the SC point. Without the spiral, both the steering demand and the superelevation change become abrupt (instantaneous), creating a dynamic shock to the vehicle. Codes specify minimum L_s partly based on this runoff requirement.
Trap Question
Question
The minimum length of a spiral transition curve is most directly governed by which requirement? (A) The spiral angle must be at least 3°. (B) Superelevation must be fully developed over the spiral length and the driver must have adequate time to respond to the curvature change. (C) The spiral length must equal the radius of the circular curve. (D) Superelevation alone determines curve safety.
Explanation
Minimum spiral length is set by: (a) superelevation runoff rate (e.g., 1 in 200 runoff gradient), (b) time for driver to respond to curvature change at design speed, and (c) appearance criteria. No single factor alone determines L_s.
Wrong Answer
(D) — student thinks superelevation fully governs spiral length
Correct Answer
(B) — both superelevation runoff and driver response time govern minimum L_s
Misconception Id
M5
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
Even if superelevation were somehow pre-built, the spiral is still needed to provide gradual curvature change. Both functions — geometric ease of steering and superelevation runoff — are independent reasons for using a spiral.
Incorrect Approach
Student states: 'A spiral is only needed to develop superelevation; if the road is already at full superelevation before the curve, no spiral is required.'
Why Students Believe It
Students think superelevation alone handles the driver comfort and safety issue. They separate the geometric transition (spiral) from the superelevation runoff conceptually, believing one can exist without the other.
The spiral angle θ_s is the same as the central angle Δ of the circular curve.
Tags
- geometry
- conceptual_gap
- angle_confusion
Topic
Spiral-Curve-Spiral Layout
Severity
major
Exam Impact
Problems involving the layout of a spiral-curve-spiral compound alignment require keeping Δ and θ_s separate. Confusing them leads to wrong long tangent, short tangent, and total tangent length calculations.
The Reality
θ_s is the angle through which the spiral itself turns — from the initial tangent to the tangent at the SC point. The central angle Δ is the angle subtended by the circular arc at the centre of the circle. They are independent parameters. In a full spiral-curve-spiral layout, the total deflection = 2θ_s + Δ_c (where Δ_c is the angle of the retained circular arc). When Δ < 2θ_s, the circular portion disappears entirely.
Trap Question
Question
A highway has an intersection angle I = 40°. Two equal spiral curves, each with L_s = 80 m, are inserted at a circular curve of R = 300 m. What is the central angle of the remaining circular arc?
Explanation
Each spiral turns through θ_s = 7.64°. Two spirals account for 2 × 7.64° = 15.28° of the total 40° intersection angle. The circular arc subtends the remaining 24.72°.
Wrong Answer
Δ_c = 40° (student assumes the whole angle is the circular arc angle)
Correct Answer
θ_s = 80/(2×300) × (180/π) = 7.64°; Δ_c = 40° − 2(7.64°) = 24.72°
Misconception Id
M6
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
θ_s = L_s/(2R) (spiral contribution). Δ_c = total intersection angle − 2θ_s (central angle of retained circular arc). Both are needed for the full layout.
Incorrect Approach
Student sets θ_s = Δ = 30° and uses the circular curve formulas for the full alignment without recognising that θ_s = 7.64° is the spiral contribution only.
Why Students Believe It
In a horizontal alignment, the total deflection from tangent to tangent involves the circular curve's central angle Δ. Students see the spiral 'turning' into the circle and assume the spiral angle equals the curve's central angle, especially when the problem does not explicitly differentiate between the two.
The friction factor f in e + f = V²/(127R) can exceed its allowable limit as long as the total (e + f) is satisfied.
Tags
- design_criteria
- formula_confusion
- common_error
Topic
Superelevation and Friction
Severity
major
Exam Impact
Problems that give V, R, and a maximum f value require computing e = V²/(127R) − f. Students who ignore f_max and just split the total arbitrarily miss the specific numerical answer the problem expects.
The Reality
Design codes set maximum allowable side-friction factors f_max that depend on design speed (lower f_max at higher speeds because tire-pavement friction reliability decreases). The superelevation e and friction f are NOT freely interchangeable beyond these limits. In Philippine highway practice (DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards), f_max decreases from about 0.35 at 30 km/h to about 0.10–0.12 at 120 km/h. The designer must first check that f ≤ f_max, then compute the required e = V²/(127R) − f.
Trap Question
Question
For V = 80 km/h, R = 300 m, and maximum allowable f = 0.15, what is the minimum required superelevation e?
Explanation
Even though f = 0.15 is close to the total demand of 0.168, the remaining 0.018 must be provided by superelevation. Setting e = 0 would mean f must equal 0.168, which exceeds f_max = 0.15 — a design violation.
Wrong Answer
e = 0 (student assumes friction alone handles the centripetal demand since f = 0.15 < 0.168)
Correct Answer
e = V²/(127R) − f = 0.168 − 0.15 = 0.018 (1.8%)
Misconception Id
M7
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
Given f_max (e.g., 0.15 for V = 80 km/h), e = 0.168 − 0.15 = 0.018. The friction is set at its maximum allowed value first; superelevation makes up the remainder.
Incorrect Approach
e + f = 0.168; student writes e = 0.10, f = 0.068 without checking whether f_max is respected or what the code-mandated split is.
Why Students Believe It
Students view e + f as a single combined resistance and think the designer has free choice to split the total any way desired — for example, using high f and low e to reduce construction cost for superelevation.
The spiral length L_s starts from the PI (Point of Intersection) of the highway tangents.
Tags
- stationing
- geometry
- common_error
Topic
Spiral Stationing and Layout Points
Severity
major
Exam Impact
Stationing problems (finding the chainage of SC, CS, or ST points) require correct placement of TS. Starting from PI instead of TS shifts all subsequent stations by the distance (T_s − L_s/2), producing wrong chainages throughout.
The Reality
The spiral begins at the TS (Tangent-to-Spiral) point and ends at the SC (Spiral-to-Circle) point. The PI is where the extended tangents intersect, but it is NOT on the spiral itself. The TS is located at a distance (tangent length T_s) before the PI. The spiral length L_s is measured along the spiral curve itself from TS to SC — not from the PI.
Trap Question
Question
The PI of a spiral-curve alignment is at Sta. 1+500. The spiral tangent length is T_s = 120 m and L_s = 80 m. At what station is the SC (Spiral-to-Circle) point?
Explanation
The spiral starts at TS, which is T_s = 120 m before the PI. From TS, travelling L_s = 80 m along the spiral reaches SC at Sta. 1+460. The wrong answer of 1+580 is 120 m in error — a full tangent length off.
Wrong Answer
Sta. SC = 1+500 + 80 = 1+580 (student starts spiral at PI)
Correct Answer
Sta. TS = 1+500 − 120 = 1+380; Sta. SC = 1+380 + 80 = 1+460
Misconception Id
M8
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
Sta. TS = Sta. PI − T_s; Sta. SC = Sta. TS + L_s. The total spiral tangent length T_s must be computed from spiral geometry first.
Incorrect Approach
Student adds L_s directly to the PI station to find SC: Sta. SC = Sta. PI + L_s (wrong placement).
Why Students Believe It
Students are accustomed to circular curve geometry, where the PI is the reference for all layout calculations. They naturally place the start of the spiral at the PI, especially when the problem gives PI stationing.
The superelevation formula e + f = V²/(127R) uses R as the radius of the spiral at the point of interest, not the radius of the circular curve.
Tags
- conceptual_gap
- formula_confusion
- design_criteria
Topic
Superelevation Design
Severity
major
Exam Impact
Problems asking for the required superelevation or minimum spiral length always refer to the circular curve radius R. Using any other radius changes the computed e + f and produces a wrong minimum L_s.
The Reality
In design practice, the formula e + f = V²/(127R) is applied using the DESIGN RADIUS R of the circular curve, not the instantaneous radius at any point along the spiral. The spiral length is designed so that superelevation DEVELOPS LINEARLY from 0 (at TS) to the full design value e (at SC). The design radius R governs the full superelevation requirement; the spiral merely provides the runoff distance over which it is built up.
Trap Question
Question
A spiral connects a straight tangent to a circular curve of R = 400 m for a design speed of 100 km/h. What radius should be used in the formula e + f = V²/(127R) to find the required superelevation?
Explanation
The formula is applied with R = 400 m to find the FULL superelevation e required at the SC. The spiral provides the transition over which e is built up from 0 to this design value. Using any other radius misidentifies the design requirement.
Wrong Answer
R = ∞ (at TS, the radius is infinite) or R = 800 m (at midpoint)
Correct Answer
R = 400 m (the circular curve design radius)
Misconception Id
M9
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
Use the circular curve radius R throughout: e + f = V²/(127R). The spiral is designed to reach this e value at its end (the SC), starting from 0 at the TS.
Incorrect Approach
Student computes e + f at the midpoint of the spiral using R_mid = 2R (the local radius at the midpoint where half the curvature has developed), getting a smaller e + f and a shorter required L_s.
Why Students Believe It
Since the spiral has a continuously changing radius, students logically think the superelevation formula should be applied with the local radius at each point along the spiral rather than the design radius R of the adjacent circular curve.
A longer spiral always provides a better (safer) transition and should always be used.
Tags
- design_criteria
- conceptual_gap
- geometry
Topic
Spiral Length Constraints
Severity
minor
Exam Impact
Conceptual questions on why spiral length has practical upper limits — or problems where a very long L_s causes the circular arc to vanish — require this understanding. Marks are not frequently lost, but choosing 'maximum L_s always' is a flagged wrong answer.
The Reality
There are UPPER limits on spiral length as well as lower limits. An excessively long spiral can: (1) confuse the driver because the curve appears to straighten out but does not; (2) create an appearance of poor alignment (overlapping spirals); (3) increase right-of-way and construction costs unnecessarily. Codes specify both minimum L_s (for runoff and driver response) and, implicitly, maximum L_s through the constraint that the circular arc must remain visible and that spirals from opposite sides must not overlap. Additionally, when L_s is too long relative to Δ, the circular arc disappears (Δ < 2θ_s).
Trap Question
Question
Two equal spirals of L_s = 150 m are inserted at a circular curve of R = 400 m with an intersection angle I = 20°. Is the design geometrically feasible? (Note: θ_s = L_s/(2R) in radians, converted to degrees.)
Explanation
When 2θ_s > I (the intersection angle), the two spiral ends would cross each other and there is no room for any circular arc. The spiral length must be reduced so that 2θ_s ≤ I.
Wrong Answer
Yes, a longer spiral always gives a better design (student does not check feasibility).
Correct Answer
θ_s = 150/(2×400) = 0.1875 rad = 10.74°; 2θ_s = 21.48° > I = 20°. The design is NOT feasible — the spirals overlap and the circular arc disappears.
Misconception Id
M10
Correct Vs Incorrect
Correct Approach
Design L_s to satisfy minimum code requirements (runoff rate, driver response time) but check that: (a) the circular arc is preserved (Δ > 2θ_s), and (b) the spiral does not exceed practical appearance and geometric constraints.
Incorrect Approach
Student selects the longest possible spiral for all designs, reasoning 'more transition = more safety always.'
Why Students Believe It
Intuitively, more gradual = better. If a spiral eases the transition, then a longer spiral should ease it even more. Students therefore always maximise L_s without understanding the counter-constraints.
Quick Self Check
θ_s = L_s/(2R) gives the result in radians. To convert to degrees, multiply by 180/π (approximately 57.296). Always include the unit at the radian stage.
Statement
The formula θ_s = L_s/(2R) directly gives the spiral angle in degrees.
The spiral angle at any point grows quadratically: θ = θ_s(ℓ/L_s)². At ℓ = L_s/2, θ = θ_s(0.5)² = 0.25 θ_s — only one-quarter of the full spiral angle, not one-half.
Statement
At the midpoint of a spiral (ℓ = L_s/2), the accumulated spiral angle is exactly half of θ_s.
The 127 constant comes from converting V in km/h to m/s (dividing by 3.6) and using g = 9.81 m/s²: 9.81 × 3.6² ≈ 127. If V is in m/s, use 9.81 in the denominator instead.
Statement
In the superelevation formula e + f = V²/(127R), V must be in km/h and R in metres for the constant 127 to be valid.
Throw ≈ L_s²/(6R) and shift p ≈ L_s²/(24R). Since 24 = 4 × 6, the shift is exactly one-quarter of the throw. They are distinct geometric quantities frequently tested separately on board exams.
Statement
The shift p of the circular curve equals the throw (tangent offset at SC) divided by 4.
L_s is measured from the TS (Tangent-to-Spiral) point to the SC point — along the spiral curve itself. The PI is where the extended tangent lines intersect and is NOT the starting point of the spiral.
Statement
The spiral length L_s is measured from the PI (Point of Intersection) to the SC (Spiral-to-Circle) point.
Feasibility requires 2θ_s ≤ I. Here 2 × 9° = 18° > 16°, so the spirals overlap and there is no remaining circular arc. The spiral length must be reduced.
Statement
If the intersection angle I = 16° and each spiral has θ_s = 9°, the design is feasible (the circular arc is preserved).
The full superelevation e corresponds to the circular curve radius R. Along the spiral, superelevation builds up linearly from 0 to e — the formula is applied with the circular curve R to determine the required end-state superelevation.
Statement
The radius R used in e + f = V²/(127R) is the design radius of the circular curve, not the local radius at each point along the spiral.
Design codes impose maximum allowable friction factors f_max that vary with design speed. Exceeding f_max is a safety violation regardless of the superelevation value. The designer must ensure f ≤ f_max and provide the remaining centripetal demand through superelevation e.
Statement
A larger friction factor f may always be substituted for superelevation e in highway design, as long as the sum e + f equals V²/(127R).
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Horizontal Curves (Simple, Compound, Reverse)
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Vertical (Parabolic) Curves
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