AFPSAT General Information — Philippine History & Political ScienceStudy Notes

Before Spanish colonization, the Philippines was organized into small political units called barangays, each consisting of approximately 100 families. These settlements were essentially independent states possessing all four elements of statehood: people, territory, government, and sovereignty. The barangay system represents the earliest form of Filipino governance and demonstrates that organized political structures existed long before Western influence. Each barangay was ruled by a datu who served multiple roles as chief executive, law-giver, chief judge, and military commander. The datu was assisted by a Council of Elders called the Maginoos, who acted as advisers in important matters. This governmental structure was monarchical in nature, with the datu functioning as the absolute ruler of his domain. The social hierarchy in pre-Spanish Philippines was well-defined and consisted of four distinct classes. At the top were the maharlika or nobility, followed by the timawa or freemen who enjoyed personal liberty and could own property. Below them were the aliping namamahay or serfs who lived in their own houses but worked for their masters, and at the bottom were the aliping saguiguilid or slaves who lived in their master's house and had no personal freedom. Legal systems in pre-Spanish Philippines included both written and unwritten laws. The written laws were formal codes promulgated by datus, with the most notable examples being the Maragtas Code written by Datu Sumakwel in AD 1250 and the Kalantiaw Code attributed to Datu Kalantiaw in AD 1433, both originating from Panay. Unwritten laws were embedded in Filipino culture and customs, passed down through oral tradition and community practice.

Spanish rule in the Philippines began with Ferdinand Magellan's arrival in March 1521 and was consolidated through Miguel Lopez de Legaspi's conquest in 1565. Spain maintained control over the Philippines for nearly four centuries until the Treaty of Paris in 1898. The Spanish colonial government underwent several administrative changes throughout its existence. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed indirectly through Mexico under the viceroyalty system. After Mexico gained independence in 1821, the Philippines came under direct Spanish rule through the Council of Indies until 1837. From 1837, the Council of Ministers temporarily handled Philippine legislation, and from 1863, the Ministry of Ultramar exercised general supervisory powers over Philippine affairs. The Spanish government in the Philippines was highly centralized and national in scope, representing a complete departure from the decentralized barangay system. The colonial administration reorganized existing barangays into larger political units called pueblos or towns, each headed by a Gobernadorcillo, popularly known as Capitan. These towns were then consolidated into provinces, each governed by a Gobernador who represented the Governor-General at the provincial level. Special chartered cities were also created, with each having an Ayuntamiento or Cabildo (city council). Cebu became the first chartered city in 1565, followed by Manila in 1571. The supreme authority in the Philippines rested with the Governor-General, who wielded executive, legislative, and limited judicial powers. Miguel Lopez de Legaspi served as the first Spanish Governor-General, while General Diego delos Rios was the last. The Governor-General was assisted by two important bodies: the Board of Authorities and the Council of Administration, which helped formulate and implement colonial policies. To strengthen the judicial system, Spain established the Royal Audiencia in 1583, initially in Cebu and later in Vigan, which exercised appellate jurisdiction over criminal cases from surrounding areas. The judicial system was further expanded in 1886 with the establishment of Courts of First Instance in each province and Justice of the Peace Courts at the municipal level. Special courts were also created to handle specific types of cases.

The period of revolutionary governments marked the Filipino struggle for independence and self-determination. Several forms of de facto government emerged during this crucial period in Philippine history. The Katipunan, founded by Andres Bonifacio, was a secret revolutionary society that initiated the Philippine revolution against Spain on August 26, 1896. The organization had a well-structured government with the Supreme Council (Kataastaasang Sanggunian) serving as the central government. Provincial councils were established in each province, while popular councils operated at the town level. The judicial function was handled by the Sangguniang Hukuman or Judicial Council. After Bonifacio's death, leadership passed to General Emilio Aguinaldo through the historic Tejeros Convention election on March 22, 1897, making Aguinaldo the first President of the Philippine Republic. The Biak-na-Bato Republic was established by General Aguinaldo on November 1, 1897, in what is now San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan. This republic operated under its own constitution and was designed to last for two years. However, it ended prematurely on December 15, 1897, with the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato between Filipino revolutionaries and Spanish authorities. Following the outbreak of the Spanish-American War on April 25, 1898, Aguinaldo established the Dictatorial Government on May 24, 1898. This government's most significant achievement was the proclamation of Philippine Independence in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898, marking the first formal declaration of Filipino sovereignty. The Revolutionary Government replaced the dictatorial government on June 23, 1898, with the primary objective of continuing the struggle for independence until international recognition was achieved and preparing the country for republican government. The culmination of these revolutionary governments was the First Philippine Republic, established following the Malolos Congress that convened on September 15, 1898. This congress drafted the Malolos Constitution, which established a free and independent Philippine Republic that was formally inaugurated on January 23, 1899, with Aguinaldo as President. Although the Republic was not recognized by other nations, it functioned as an organized government from January 23, 1899, to March 23, 1901.

American rule in the Philippines began with the capture of Manila on April 14, 1898, and continued until independence on July 4, 1946. The American colonial government evolved through three distinct phases, each representing different approaches to Philippine governance. The Military Government phase lasted from the capture of Manila until July 4, 1901. During this period, the existence of war gave the U.S. President authority to establish military rule, with power delegated to Military Governors who exercised all governmental functions: executive, legislative, and judicial. The three American Military Governors were General Wesley Meritt, General Elwell Otis, and General Arthur MacArthur. Military rule was characterized by direct control and martial law implementation. The Civil Government phase began on July 4, 1901, following the Spooner Amendment that ended military rule. William Howard Taft became the first Civil Governor (1901-1903), followed by Luke F. Wright (1904-1906). The title was changed to Governor-General on February 6, 1905. The Governor-General served as the chief executive and president of the Philippine Commission, which functioned as the sole law-making body from 1901 to 1916. The Philippine Commission served as the upper house of the legislative branch, with the Philippine Assembly as the lower house. With the passage of the Jones Law in 1916, these two bodies were reorganized into the Philippine Legislature. The Philippines was represented in the U.S. Congress by two Resident Commissioners elected by the Philippine Legislature, who had seats in the House of Representatives with full privileges except voting rights. The Commonwealth Government represented the final transition phase toward independence. Established under the Tydings-McDuffie Act of March 24, 1934, it provided for a ten-year transition period leading to full independence on July 4, 1946. The Commonwealth was inaugurated on November 15, 1935, following national elections on September 12, 1935, under the 1935 Constitution. Manuel L. Quezon was elected President and Sergio Osmena as Vice President. The Commonwealth government was republican and presidential in nature, with legislative power vested initially in a unicameral National Assembly and later in a bicameral Congress consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives. Judicial power was vested in the Supreme Court and lower courts. During World War II, the Commonwealth government operated in exile in Washington from May 13, 1942, to October 3, 1944, and was reestablished in Manila on February 27, 1945, when General Douglas MacArthur restored full governmental powers to President Osmena.

The Japanese Military Administration was established in Manila on January 3, 1942, immediately terminating U.S. sovereignty over the Philippines. The occupation government evolved through two phases: the Philippine Executive Commission and the Japanese-sponsored Republic. The Philippine Executive Commission was established as a civil government with Jorge B. Vargas as chairman, exercising both executive and legislative powers subject to Japanese military approval. On October 14, 1943, the Japanese-sponsored Republic of the Philippines was inaugurated with Jose P. Laurel as President, though ultimate authority remained with Japanese military leadership. This republic was dissolved by President Laurel on August 17, 1945. After liberation, the Third Philippine Republic was inaugurated on July 4, 1946, with Manuel A. Roxas as President and Elpidio Quirino as Vice President. The post-war period saw a succession of presidents: Quirino (1948-1953) after Roxas's death, Ramon Magsaysay (1953-1957) who died in a plane crash, Carlos P. Garcia (1957-1961), and Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965). The Marcos era began in 1965 and lasted until 1986, spanning two elected terms (1965-1973) and an extended authoritarian period under Martial Law (1972-1986). Marcos declared Martial Law through Proclamation No. 1081, abolishing Congress and concentrating all governmental powers in the presidency. The 1973 Constitution was ratified during this period, establishing the Batasang Pambansa as the legislative body. The Marcos regime ended with the EDSA People Power Revolution (February 22-25, 1986), leading to Corazon Aquino's presidency. Aquino issued the Freedom Constitution and appointed a Constitutional Commission to draft the 1987 Constitution, which was ratified on February 2, 1987. Fidel Ramos succeeded Aquino in 1992, followed by Joseph Estrada in 1998, whose presidency ended prematurely in 2001 due to impeachment proceedings and the EDSA Dos revolution, leading to Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo's assumption of the presidency.

The post-EDSA period has been characterized by democratic transitions and various political challenges. Fidel Ramos (1992-1998) focused on national reconciliation, economic stabilization, and peace processes with insurgent groups. His administration legalized the Communist Party and created the National Unification Commission. Joseph Estrada (1998-2001) won the 1998 elections as a popular choice but faced corruption allegations, particularly the jueteng scandal revealed by Luis Singson in 2000. Estrada's presidency ended through EDSA Dos in January 2001, leading to his replacement by Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. The Arroyo administration (2001-2010) faced numerous challenges including the May 1, 2001 rebellion by Estrada supporters, the Oakwood mutiny in 2003, and various corruption scandals. Despite multiple impeachment attempts, Arroyo completed her term. The 2010 elections marked the first use of automated voting through PCOS machines under Republic Act No. 9369. Benigno Simeon Aquino III won the presidency with Jejomar Binay as Vice President, serving from 2010 to 2016. The 2016 elections saw Rodrigo Duterte's victory as the 16th President, with Maria Leonor Robredo as Vice President despite being from different political parties. Duterte's administration has been marked by controversial policies, including the withdrawal from the International Criminal Court and complex relationships with international partners, particularly regarding the West Philippine Sea dispute despite favorable international arbitration rulings.

Political Science is the systematic study of the state and government, employing scientific methodologies to understand governmental operations and the relationships between citizens and the state. It provides fundamental knowledge about state organization, political processes, and the principles underlying governmental activities. The discipline examines how political systems function, how power is distributed and exercised, and how public policies are formulated and implemented. Political science encompasses various subfields including comparative government, public administration, international relations, political theory, and public policy analysis. Understanding political science is essential for civil service professionals as it provides the theoretical foundation for effective governance and public service delivery. The study involves analyzing political institutions, processes, behaviors, and outcomes to develop comprehensive understanding of how societies govern themselves. Political scientists use various research methods including surveys, case studies, statistical analysis, and comparative studies to examine political phenomena and develop theories about political behavior and institutional effectiveness.

A state is defined as a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of external control, and possessing an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience. This definition encompasses four essential elements that must be present for a political entity to be considered a state. The first element is People, referring to the inhabitants of the state who form the human component of the political community. The population need not be homogeneous in terms of race, religion, or culture, but they must be permanently settled within the state's boundaries. The second element is Territory, which constitutes the fixed portion of the earth's surface inhabited by the people of the state. For the Philippines, the national territory includes the Philippine archipelago with all islands and waters, other territories under Philippine sovereignty or jurisdiction, and the terrestrial, fluvial, and aerial domains including territorial seas, seabed, subsoil, and submarine areas. The waters connecting the islands form part of the internal waters regardless of their dimensions. The third element is Government, which serves as the agency or instrumentality through which the state's will is formulated, expressed, and realized. Government is the mechanism by which the state exercises its functions and implements its policies. The fourth and final element is Sovereignty, representing the supreme power of the state to enforce its will on its members within its jurisdiction and to maintain freedom from foreign control. Sovereignty has two aspects: internal sovereignty (supreme authority within the state's territory) and external sovereignty (independence from foreign control). These four elements are interdependent and must coexist for a state to exist legally and politically.

Several theories attempt to explain the origin of states, each providing different perspectives on how political communities developed. The Divine Right Theory holds that states are divinely created and rulers are ordained by God to govern the people, providing religious legitimacy to political authority. The Necessity or Force Theory suggests that states evolved through force when powerful warriors imposed their authority over weaker groups, emphasizing the role of military power in state formation. The Paternalistic Theory proposes that states originated from the enlargement of family units that remained under paternal authority, suggesting natural evolution from kinship to political relationships. The Social Contract Theory, associated with philosophers like Rousseau, argues that states developed from deliberate and voluntary agreements among people to form society and organize government for their common good, justifying the people's right to revolt against tyrannical rule. Government functions are classified into constituent and ministrant functions. Constituent functions are compulsory and form the foundation of society, including maintaining order and protecting persons and property, regulating legal relationships between individuals and families, determining property rights and contractual obligations, defining and punishing crimes, administering civil justice, establishing political duties and rights of citizens, and conducting foreign relations. Ministrant functions are optional and undertaken to advance general social interests, including public works, education, charity, health and safety regulations, and trade and commerce oversight. Understanding these functions helps distinguish between essential governmental roles and supplementary services that enhance societal welfare.

Governments can be classified according to various criteria, each highlighting different aspects of political organization and power distribution. Based on the number of persons exercising supreme power, governments are classified as Monarchy (rule by one), Aristocracy or Oligarchy (rule by few), and Democracy (rule by many or majority). Monarchies are further divided into Absolute Monarchy, where the ruler has unlimited power and rules by divine right, and Limited or Constitutional Monarchy, where the ruler governs according to constitutional constraints. Democratic governments include Direct or Pure Democracy, where citizens participate directly in decision-making through mass meetings or assemblies, and Indirect, Representative, or Republican Democracy, where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. Based on the extent of powers exercised by the central government, systems are classified as Unitary, where the national government controls both national and local affairs, or Federal, where power is divided between national and local governments, each supreme within its jurisdiction. According to the relationship between legislative and executive branches, governments are Parliamentary, where the legislature can terminate the executive's tenure and the cabinet is responsible to the legislature, or Presidential, where the executive is independent of the legislature in terms of tenure, policies, and acts, being directly elected by the people. Regarding compliance with laws, governments are classified as De Jure, having general popular support and being founded on existing constitution and laws, or De Facto, existing in fact but not founded on the state's existing legal framework. Understanding these classifications helps analyze different political systems and their operational characteristics.